Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2019-03-03

Date

1996-05-04

Topics

Pharmaceuticals/ prescribing/ cannabis/ marijuana/ drugs

Text

APPROACHES TO ENHANCING THE QUALITY OF DRUG THERAPY A JOINT STATEMENT BY THE CMA ANDTHE CANADIAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION This joint statement was developed by the CMA and the Canadian Pharmaceutical Association, a national association of pharmacists, and includes the goal of drug therapy, strategies for collaboration to optimize drug therapy and physicians' and pharmacists' responsibilities in drug therapy. The statement recognizes the importance of patients, physicians and pharmacists working in close collaboration and partnership to achieve optimal outcomes from drug therapy. Goal of This Joint Statement The goal of this joint statement is to promote optimal drug therapy by enhancing communication and working relationships among patients, physicians and pharmacists. It is also meant to serve as an educational resource for pharmacists and physicians so that they will have a clearer understanding of each other's responsibilities in drug therapy. In the context of this statement, a "patient" may include a designated patient representative, such as a parent, spouse, other family member, patient advocate or health care provider. Physicians and pharmacists have a responsibility to work with their patients to achieve optimal outcomes by providing high-quality drug therapy. The important contribution of all members of the health care team and the need for cooperative working relationships are recognized; however, this statement focuses on the specific relationships among pharmacists, physicians and patients with respect to drug therapy. This statement is a general guide and is not intended to describe all aspects of physicians' or pharmacists' activities. It is not intended to be restrictive, nor should it inhibit positive developments in pharmacist-physician relationships or in their respective practices that contribute to optimal drug therapy. Furthermore, this statement should be used and interpreted in accordance with applicable legislation and other legal requirements. This statement will be reviewed and assessed regularly to ensure its continuing applicability to medical and pharmacy practices. Goal of Drug Therapy The goal of drug therapy is to improve patients' health and quality of life by preventing, eliminating or controlling diseases or symptoms. Optimal drug therapy is safe, effective, appropriate, affordable, cost-effective and tailored to meet the needs of patients, who participate, to the best of their ability, in making informed decisions about their therapy. Patients require access to necessary drug therapy and specific, unbiased drug information to meet their individual needs. Providing optimal drug therapy also requires a valid and accessible information base generated by basic, clinical, pharmaceutical and other scientific research. Working Together for Optimal Drug Therapy Physicians and pharmacists have complementary and supportive responsibilities in providing optimal drug therapy. To achieve this goal, and to ensure that patients receive consistent information, patients, pharmacists and physicians must work cooperatively and in partnership. This requires effective communication, respect, trust, and mutual recognition and understanding of each other's complementary responsibilities. The role of each profession in drug therapy depends on numerous factors, including the specific patient and his or her drug therapy, the prescription status of the drug concerned, the setting and the patient-physician-pharmacist relationship. However, it is recognized that, in general, each profession may focus on certain areas more than others. For example, when counselling patients on their drug therapy, a physician may focus on disease-specific counselling, goals of therapy, risks and benefits and rare side effects, whereas a pharmacist may focus on correct usage, treatment adherence, dosage, precautions, dietary restrictions and storage. Areas of overlap may include purpose, common side effects and their management and warnings regarding drug interactions and lifestyle concerns. Similarly, when monitoring drug therapy, a physician would focus on clinical progress toward treatment goals, whereas a pharmacist may focus on drug effects, interactions and treatment adherence; both would monitor adverse effects. Both professions should tailor drug therapy, including education, to meet the needs of individual patients. To provide continuity of care and to promote consistency in the information being provided, it is important that both pharmacists and physicians assess the patients' knowledge and identify and reinforce the educational component provided by the other. Strategies for Collaborating to Optimize Drug Therapy Patients, physicians and pharmacists need to work in close collaboration and partnership to achieve optimal drug therapy. Strategies to facilitate such teamwork include the following. - Respecting and supporting patients' rights to make informed decisions regarding their drug therapy. - Promoting knowledge, understanding and acceptance by physicians and pharmacists of their responsibilities in drug therapy and fostering widespread communication of these responsibilities so they are clearly understood by all. - Supporting both professions' relationship with patients, and promoting a collaborative approach to drug therapy within the health care team. Care must be taken to maintain patients' trust and their relationship with other caregivers. - Sharing relevant patient information for the enhancement of patient care, in accordance and compliance with all of the following: ethical standards to protect patient privacy, accepted medical and pharmacy practice, and the law. Patients should inform their physician and pharmacist of any information that may assist in providing optimal drug therapy. - Increasing physicians' and pharmacists' awareness that it is important to make themselves readily available to each other to communicate about a patient for whom they are both providing care. - Enhancing documentation (e.g., clearly written prescriptions and communication forms) and optimizing the use of technology (e.g., e-mail, voice mail and fax) in individual practices to enhance communication, improve efficiency and support consistency in information provided to patients. - Developing effective communication and administrative procedures between health care institutions and community-based pharmacists and physicians to support continuity of care. - Developing local communication channels and encouraging dialogue between the professions (e.g., through joint continuing education programs and local meetings) to promote a peer-review-based approach to local prescribing and drug-use issues. - Teaching a collaborative approach to patient care as early as possible in the training of pharmacists and physicians. - Developing effective communication channels and encouraging dialogue among patients, physicians and pharmacists at the regional, provincial, territorial and national levels to address issues such as drug-use policy, prescribing guidelines and continuing professional education. - Collaborating in the development of technology to enhance communication in practices (e.g., shared patient databases relevant to drug therapy). - Working jointly on committees and projects concerned with issues in drug therapy such as patient education, treatment adherence, formularies and practice guidelines, hospital-to-community care, cost-control strategies, sampling and other relevant policy issues concerning drug therapy. - Fostering the development and utilization of a high-quality clinical and scientific information base to support evidence-based decision making. The Physician's Responsibilities Physicians and pharmacists recognize the following responsibilities in drug therapy as being within the scope of physicians' practice, on the basis of such factors as physicians' education and specialized skills, relationship with patients and practice environment. Some responsibilities may overlap with those of pharmacists (see The Pharmacist's Responsibilities). In addition, it is recognized that practice environments within medicine may differ and may affect the physician's role. - Assessing health status, diagnosing diseases, assessing the need for drug therapy and providing curative, preventive, palliative and rehabilitative drug therapy in consultation with patients and in collaboration with caregivers, pharmacists and other health care professionals, when appropriate. - Working with patients to set therapeutic goals and monitor progress toward such goals in consultation with caregivers, pharmacists and other health care providers, when appropriate. - Monitoring and assessing response to drug therapy, progress toward therapeutic goals and patient adherence to the therapeutic plan; when necessary, revising the plan on the basis of outcomes of current therapy and progress toward goals of therapy, in consultation with patients and in collaboration with caregivers, pharmacists and other health care providers, when appropriate. - Carrying out surveillance of and assessing patients for adverse reactions to drugs and other unanticipated problems related to drug therapy, revising therapy and, when appropriate, reporting adverse reactions and other complications to health authorities. - Providing specific information to patients and caregivers about diagnosis, indications and treatment goals, and the action, benefits, risks and potential side effects of drug therapy. - Providing and sharing general and specific information and advice about disease and drugs with patients, caregivers, health care providers and the public. - Maintaining adequate records of drug therapy for each patient, including, when applicable, goals of therapy, therapy prescribed, progress toward goals, revisions of therapy, a list of drugs (both prescription and over-the-counter drugs) currently taken, adverse reactions to therapy, history of known drug allergies, smoking history, occupational exposure or risk, known patterns of alcohol or substance use that may influence response to drugs, history of treatment adherence and attitudes toward drugs. Records should also document patient counselling and advice given, when appropriate. - Ensuring safe procurement, storage, handling, preparation, distribution, dispensing and record keeping of drugs (in keeping with federal and provincial regulations and the CMA policy summary "Physicians and the Pharmaceutical Industry (Update 1994)" (Can Med Assoc J 1994;150:256A-C.) when the patient cannot reasonably receive such services from a pharmacist. - Maintaining a high level of knowledge about drug therapy through critical appraisal of the literature and continuing professional development. Care must be provided in accordance with legislation and in an atmosphere of privacy, and patient confidentiality must be maintained. Care also should be provided in accordance with accepted scientific and ethical standards and procedures. The Pharmacist's Responsibilities Pharmacists and physicians recognize the following responsibilities as being within the scope of pharmacists' practice, on the basis of such factors as pharmacists' education and specialized skills, relationship with patients and practice environment. Some responsibilities may overlap with those of physicians (see The Physician's Responsibilities). In addition, it is recognized that, in selected practice environments, the pharmacists' role may differ considerably. - Evaluating the patients' drug-therapy record ("drug profile") and reviewing prescription orders to ensure that a prescribed therapy is safe and to identify, solve or prevent actual or potential drug-related problems or concerns. Examples include possible contraindications, drug interactions or therapeutic duplication, allergic reactions and patient nonadherence to treatment. Significant concerns should be discussed with the prescriber. - Ensuring safe procurement, storage, preparation, distribution and dispensing of pharmaceutical products (in keeping with federal, provincial and other applicable regulations). - Discussing actual or potential drug-related problems or concerns and the purpose of drug therapy with patients, in consultation with caregivers, physicians and health care providers, when appropriate. - Monitoring drug therapy to identify drug-related problems or concerns, such as lack of symptomatic response, lack of adherence to treatment plans and suspected adverse effects. Significant concerns should be discussed with the physician. - Advising patients and caregivers on the selection and use of nonprescription drugs and the management of minor symptoms or ailments. - Directing patients to consult their physician for diagnosis and treatment when required. Pharmacists may be the first contact for health advice. Through basic patient assessment (i.e., observation and interview) they should identify the need for referral to a physician or an emergency department. - Notifying physicians of actual or suspected adverse reactions to drugs and, when appropriate, reporting such reactions to health authorities. - Providing specific information to patients and caregivers about drug therapy, taking into account patients' existing knowledge about their drug therapy. This information may include the name of the drug, its purpose, potential interactions or side effects, precautions, correct usage, methods to promote adherence to the treatment plan and any other health information appropriate to the needs of the patient. - Providing and sharing general and specific drug-related information and advice with patients, caregivers, physicians, health care providers and the public. - Maintaining adequate records of drug therapy to facilitate the prevention, identification and management of drug-related problems or concerns. These records should contain, but are not limited to, each patient's current and past drug therapy (including both prescribed and selected over-the-counter drugs), drug-allergy history, appropriate demographic data and, if known, the purpose of therapy and progress toward treatment goals, adverse reactions to therapy, the patient's history of adherence to treatment, attitudes toward drugs, smoking history, occupational exposure or risk, and known patterns of alcohol or substance use that may influence his or her response to drugs. Records should also document patient counselling and advice given, when appropriate. - Maintaining a high level of knowledge about drug therapy through critical appraisal of the literature and continuing professional development. Care must be provided in accordance with legislation and in an atmosphere of privacy, and patient confidentiality must be maintained. Products and services should be provided in accordance with accepted scientific and ethical standards and procedures.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2001-05-28

Topics

Ethics and medical professionalism

Text

Like all scientific and medical procedures, assisted human reproduction has the potential for both benefit and harm. It is in the interests of individual Canadians and Canadian society in general that these practices be regulated so as to maximize their benefits and minimize their harms. To help achieve this goal, the Canadian Medical Association (CMA) has developed this policy on regulating these practices. It replaces previous CMA policy on assisted reproduction. Objectives The objectives of any Canadian regulatory regime for assisted reproduction should include the following: (a) to protect the health and safety of Canadians in the use of human reproductive materials for assisted reproduction, other medical procedures and medical research; (b) to ensure the appropriate treatment of human reproductive materials outside the body in recognition of their potential to form human life; and (c) to protect the dignity of all persons, in particular children and women, in relation to uses of human reproductive materials. Principles When a Canadian regulatory regime for assisted reproduction is developed, it should incorporate the following principles: For the regulation of assisted reproduction, existing organizations such as medical licensing authorities, accreditation bodies and specialist societies should be involved to the greatest extent possible. If the legislation establishing the regulatory regime is to include prohibitions as well as regulation, the prohibition of specific medical and scientific acts must be justified on explicit scientific and/or ethical grounds. If criminal sanctions are to be invoked, they should apply only in cases of deliberate contravention of the directives of the regulatory agency and not to specific medical and scientific acts. Whatever regulatory agency is created should include significant membership of scientists and clinicians working in the area of assisted reproduction. Elements of a Regulatory Regime The regulation of assisted reproduction in Canada should include the following elements: Legislation to create a national regulatory body with appropriate responsibilities and accountability for coordinating the activities of organizations that are working in the area of assisted reproduction and for carrying out functions that other organizations cannot perform. The development and monitoring of national standards for research related to human subjects including genetics and reproduction. The regulatory body would work closely with the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, other federal and provincial research granting councils, the National Council on Ethics in Human Research and other such organizations. The development and monitoring of national standards for training and certifying physicians in those reproductive technologies deemed acceptable. As is the case for all post-graduate medical training in Canada, this is appropriately done through bodies such as the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada and the College of Family Physicians of Canada. The licensing and monitoring of individual physicians. This task is the responsibility of the provincial and territorial medical licensing authorities which could regulate physician behaviour in respect to the reproductive technologies, just as they do for other areas of medical practice. The development of guidelines for medical procedures. This should be done by medical specialty societies such as the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC) and the Canadian Fertility and Andrology Society (CFAS). The accreditation of facilities where assisted reproduction is practised. There is already in Canada a well functioning accreditation system, run by the Canadian Council on Health Services Accreditation, which may be suitable for assisted reproduction facitilies. Whatever regulatory body is established to deal with assisted reproduction should utilize, not duplicate, the work of these organizations. In order to maximize the effectiveness of these organizations, the regulatory body could provide them with additional resources and delegated powers. Criminalization The CMA is opposed to the criminalization of scientific and medical procedures. Criminalization represents an unjustified intrusion of government into the patient-physician relationship. Previous attempts to criminalize medical procedures (for example, abortion) were ultimately self-defeating. If the federal government wishes to use its criminal law power to regulate assisted reproduction, criminal sanctions should apply only in cases of deliberate contravention of the directives of the regulatory agency and not to specific medical and scientific acts.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2001-05-28

Replaces

Boxing (1986)

Topics

Population health/ health equity/ public health

Text

The CMA recommends to the appropriate government authorities that all boxing be banned in Canada. Until such time, strategies to prevent injury should be pursued. Background The CMA considers boxing a dangerous sport. While most sports involve risk of injury, boxing is distinct in that the basic intent of the boxer is to harm and incapacitate his or her opponent. Boxers are at significant risk of injuries resulting in brain damage. Boxers are susceptible not only to acute life-threatening brain trauma, but also to the chronic and debilitating effects of gradual cerebral atrophy. Studies demonstrate a correlation between the number of bouts fought and the presence of cerebral abnormalities in boxers. There is also a risk of eye injury including long-term damage such as retinal tears and detachments. Recommendations: - CMA supports a ban on professional and amateur boxing in Canada. - Until boxing is banned in this country, the following preventive strategies should be pursued to reduce brain and eye injuries in boxers: - Head blows should be prohibited. CMA encourages universal use of protective garb such as headgear and thumbless, impact-absorbing gloves - The World Boxing Council, World Boxing Association and other regulatory bodies should develop and enforce objective brain injury risk assessment tools to exclude individual boxers from sparring or fighting. - The World Boxing Council, World Boxing Association and other regulatory bodies should develop and enforce standard criteria for referees, ringside officials and ringside physicians to halt sparring or boxing bouts when a boxer has experienced blows that place him or her at imminent risk of serious injury. - The World Boxing Council, World Boxing Association and other regulatory bodies should encourage implementation of measures advocated by the World Medical Boxing Congress to reduce the incidence of brain and eye injuries. - CMA believes that the professional responsibility of the physician who serves in a medical capacity in a boxing contest is to protect the health and safety of the contestants. The desire of spectators, promoters of the event, or even injured athletes that they not be removed from the contest should not influence the physician’s medical judgment. - Further long term outcome data should be obtained from boxers in order to more accurately establish successful preventive interventions. CMA encourages ongoing research into the causes and treatments of boxing-related injuries, and into the effects of preventive strategies.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2001-05-28

Replaces

Drug testing in the workplace (1992)

Topics

Ethics and medical professionalism

Pharmaceuticals/ prescribing/ cannabis/ marijuana/ drugs

Text

Health and safety in the workplace continue to be areas of concern to the CMA. The CMA recommends that educational programs on the risks of drug-related impairment to health and safety in the workplace be directed toward labour, management and the public in general. Occupations for which impairment resulting from drug use may constitute a serious hazard should be identified and designated as such. The association recommends that supervisors be trained to refer a worker in a safety-sensitive job for a health assessment if the supervisor has reasonable grounds to suspect impairment of the worker. Workers holding safety-sensitive jobs should be educated to report any departure from their usual state of health as well as any drugs (prescribed or otherwise) being taken to the occupational health physician or, in the absence of such, to the physician of the worker's choice. The CMA is opposed to routine pre-employment drug testing. It recommends that random drug testing among employees be restricted to safety-sensitive positions and undertaken only when measures of performance and effective peer or supervisory observation are unavailable. Drug testing should always be conducted in such a way as to protect confidentiality and should be undertaken with the subject's informed consent (except when otherwise required by law). The idea of drug testing among workers has developed from society's concern over the relation between drug use and impairment, with resultant risks to the worker, fellow workers and the public. Education: Since prevention is the principal and ultimate objective the association recommends that educational programs on the risks of impairment to health and safety in the workplace be directed toward labour, management and the public in general. Illicit drugs are not the only ones that may cause impairment. Certain prescription drugs and even some over-the-counter medications may affect a person's ability to carry out professional functions safely; such effects may vary considerably from one person to another. Alcohol is by far the most common impairing drug implicated in accidents; in addition, the scientific literature contains a growing body of information on impairment and dangers resulting from the use and misuse of various therapeutic medications. Far less is documented or known about the role of illicit drugs in work-related accidents. Safety-sensitive occupations: In most workplaces there are occupations for which impairment may constitute a serious hazard. Such occupations should be identified and designated as such. Workers who hold such safety-sensitive jobs must accept the fact that other workers and the public need to be protected from the hazards of impairment, whether from physical or psychologic ill health or from the use of drugs (over-the-counter, prescription or illicit). Performance assessment of safety-sensitive occupations: The CMA recommends that supervisors be trained to refer a worker in a safety-sensitive job for a health assessment if the supervisor has reasonable grounds (e.g., unsatisfactory performance or observed unusual behaviour) to suspect impairment of the worker. The examining physician may recommend that some tests (including tests for the presence of certain drugs) be carried out under pre-agreed protocols. Workers holding safety-sensitive jobs must be educated to report any departure from their usual state of health as well as any drugs (prescribed or otherwise) they may be taking to the occupational health physician or, in the absence of such, to the physician of the worker's choice. Testing: Any discussion of drug testing must take the following into account: If a quantitative test is to be used to determine impairment a limit must be established beyond which a person is deemed to be impaired. However, since the threshold of impairment varies from one person to another this variation should be taken into account when a worker is being assessed. The tests must be valid and reliable. They must be performed only in laboratories accredited for drug testing. The tests must provide results rapidly enough to be useful in deciding whether the person should continue to work. If different testing procedures are available and the differences between the validity and reliability are not significant the least intrusive alternative should be chosen. The test should be conducted in such a way as to ensure confidentiality and should be undertaken with the subject's informed consent (except when otherwise required by law). Pre-employment testing: The CMA opposes routine pre-employment drug testing for the following reasons: Routine pre-employment drug screening may not objectively identify those people who constitute a risk to society. The mass, low-cost screening tests may not be reliable or valid. The circumstances may not justify possible human rights violations. Random testing: The CMA believes that random drug testing among employees has a limited role, if any, in the workplace. Such testing should be restricted to employees in safety-sensitive positions and undertaken only when measures of performance and effective peer or supervisory observation are unavailable. Role of occupational health services: Occupational health physicians must not be involved in a policing or disciplinary role with respect to employee testing. CMA recommends that employers provide a safe environment for all workers. With the help of experts such as those from national and provincial agencies dedicated to dealing with substance abuse occupational health departments should develop lists of drugs known to cause short-term or long-term impairment, including alcohol. These lists should be posted prominently in the workplace, and workers should be advised that in the event of obvious impairment those involved in safety-sensitive occupations will be asked to undergo medical assessment. If testing for drugs is indicated refusal to submit to testing may result in a presumption of noncompliance with the health requirements of the job. Alcohol impairment should not be tolerated, and legislation should be considered that would set a legal blood alcohol level for safety-sensitive occupations. Breathalyzers or other detection methods could be used if alcohol impairment is suspected in a person holding safety-sensitive occupation. As stated previously, refusal to submit to testing may result in a presumption of noncompliance with the health requirements of the job. These measures should be discussed with labour and management. Labour should be expected to recognize drug-related impairment as a serious health and safety issue, and management should demonstrate its concern by ensuring access to treatment, prevention and educational programs such as employee assistance programs.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2001-05-28

Replaces

Firearms control (1993)

Topics

Population health/ health equity/ public health

Text

FIREARMS CONTROL (UPDATE 2001) Summary Firearms are a major cause of death and injury in Canada and account for nearly 1,400 deaths annually. The CMA has made several recommendations to governments and other bodies undertaking legislative review and public policy change. These recommendations relate to the regulation of firearms, education for the safe handling of firearms, broad-based violence prevention programs, and research and information provision. In addition, the CMA has produced guidelines to assist physicians in identifying and counselling patients at risk of violent behaviour and in reporting patients at risk. Firearms are a major cause of death and injury in Canada.. The cost to society of firearm-related injury, particularly spinal cord and head injuries, is considerable. Over the short term, policy should focus on firearms and the user. Applying stringent controls on firearms, however, may have little effect on the rates of death and injury if the underlying problems of violence in society are not addressed. In an effort to accommodate both short-term and long-term solutions the CMA recommends the following to governments and bodies undertaking legislative review and public policy change. Regulation The object of regulation should be to deter people at risk for violent or self-destructive behaviour from having easy access to firearms. A regulatory policy should address (a) the acquisition of firearms (e.g., licensing of firearms and/or users, processes to screen would-be purchasers who are at risk), b) secure firearm and ammunition storage methods and modifications to firearms that would render them less accessible to children or those acting on violent impulses and (c) severe penalties for offenses such as the use of a firearm in the commission of a crime or an act of violence, including family violence. Education Training in safe handling of firearms is strongly recommended, particularly for all first-time firearm users. Broader-based education programs aimed at the prevention of violence (e.g., in schools) may also be efficacious and should be evaluated for their impact in reducing violence. Research and information provision CMA encourages research in a number of areas, including the following. Firearm surveillance: the types of firearms or classes of ammunition disproportionately involved in intentional deaths and injuries, the circumstances surrounding a firearm incident (e.g., argument between friends, alcohol involvement) and data on injuries and deaths. Determination of behavioural or environmental risk factors for violent behaviour: the relative risk or benefit of keeping a firearm at home for protection i.e.. the scientific assessment of the deterrence effect): The effects of factors such as alcohol, drug use and family history of violence on the risk of violent death; and how accurately experts can identify people at risk. Case-control and cohort studies on gun control, crime and the antecedents of violent behaviour. Evaluation of education programs that discourage firearm-related violence or promote safe handling of firearms. Role of physicians The CMA recommends that physicians consider the following guidelines. Management of patients at risk It is not always possible to identify people at risk of violent or self-destructive behaviour; however, the CMA recommends that physicians be alert to warning signs that a patient may be at risk and manage that patient accordingly. For example, always ask depressed patients about suicidal and homicidal thoughts and plans (asking will not plant ideas); admit suicidal patients to hospital, even against their will, particularly if they do not have supportive families who can monitor them at home; have the family remove all firearms from the home of a patient at risk; and monitor the patient frequently, writing small prescriptions if medication is required. Good clinical judgement and close follow-up are perhaps the most effective ways of managing a self-destructive or violent patient. Reporting of patients at risk No specific guidelines exist for the reporting of patients at risk of violent behaviour. The physician should consider whether the risk of harm to society (or a third party) posed by a patient outweighs that patient's right to confidentiality. Counselling and public advocacy A physician may be asked for a reference for an applicant of a firearms acquisition certificate. Before providing the reference the physician should consider the applicant carefully for risk factors, recommend appropriate firearms training and caution against the concomitant use of firearms, alcohol and other drugs. A physician should become an advocate for nonviolent conflict resolution. As research accumulates about the most effective interventions for nonviolent conflict resolution the health sector may be able to draw on this research to work to reduce violence in society. Like motor vehicle and bicycle safety, firearm safety is a public health issue. The CMA holds that physicians, as advocates for the health of Canadians, can help reduce firearm-related damage and address the concomitant underlying problem of violence in society.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2001-05-28

Topics

Ethics and medical professionalism

Text

Guidelines for CMA’s Activities and Relationships with Other Parties As the national voice of medicine in Canada, the CMA provides leadership for physicians, promotes the highest standards of health and health care for Canadians and acts as advocate for all Canadian physicians. In the furtherance of its purpose, the CMA conducts a variety of activities and has a variety of relationships with other parties. The CMA’s activities range from policy development to the delivery of products and services to physicians and the public. Its relationships with other parties range from the purchase of goods and services that support operations to partnerships that further or are consistent with its advocacy strategies. The CMA actively seeks out relationships with others in recognition of the benefits these bring in the attainment of the CMA’s purposes. Such benefits may include: - unifying the profession through relations with physician groups, including the divisions and affiliates - enabling a stronger advocacy voice in association with others - enhancing the CMA’s credibility with other parties - providing financial and human resources to support CMA activities - providing skills and capabilities that CMA may not possess - providing additional membership services. Activities or relationships with other parties and products and services produced through the activity or relationship (“activities or relationships”) that undermine the CMA’s reputation of professionalism, independence and quality are to be avoided, not only for their own sake but also because a diminishment of the CMA’s reputation impedes its ability to achieve its purposes. The following principles have been developed to help guide decisions about the kinds of activities CMA undertakes and about its relations with other parties, with the objective of ensuring the integrity and good reputation of the CMA. A process or processes will be developed to implement the principles, which will include the preparation of subdocuments on applying the principles to specific areas; for example, sponsorship, endorsement and coalitions. Principles The CMA should rigorously and actively pursue its laudable ends and seek out relationships with others to attain them with the caveat that activities or relationships that would tarnish the integrity or reputation of CMA or the medical profession or that would diminish the trust placed in them should be avoided. Conformity with CMA’s purpose The activity or relationship should further or support the CMA’s purposes as elaborated in its objects, vision and mission. The CMA’s purposes have been explicitly and widely agreed upon. The CMA holds itself to be, and encourages reliance that it is, an organization that pursues its specified purposes. Activities and relationships that do not further or support the CMA’s purposes have the potential to thwart these purposes in a number of ways, including inadequate accountability, inappropriate use of resources, unconstrained exercise of merely private judgement or inappropriate self-interest. 2. Medical professionalism and ethics The activity or relationship should be consistent with medical professionalism and with CMA’s Code of Ethics. The CMA is an association of physicians. When the CMA acts, it represents the medical profession. The CMA’s actions reflect upon the medical profession. The CMA’s stature and reputation are inextricably linked to the medical profession’s work, the professional stature of its member physicians and the trust Canadians place in their physicians. Engaging in activities or relationships that are inconsistent with medical professionalism and CMA’s Code of Ethics would erode trust in the CMA. Independence The activity or relationship should not undermine the CMA’s independence. To be a credible voice and influence and to be worthy of the trust and confidence of physicians and of the public, the CMA should be, and be seen to be, free of undue influence and in control of the decisions it makes. Undue influence occurs when one is induced to do or not do something that is contrary to what one would otherwise do if left to act freely. Undue influence deprives one of free agency and destroys free will such that it is rendered more the will of another than of one’s own. Activities and relationships that may undermine independence include: activities or relationships that provide revenue or benefit to the CMA such that ongoing dependency on the revenue or benefit impedes independence activities and relationships that create a product or service that is seen to be associated with the CMA but over which the CMA does not have final control or veto or the capacity to extricate itself Consistency with policy The activity or relationship should be consistent with CMA policy. The CMA develops policy in pursuance of its purposes; these should be referred to when making decisions in connection with activities or relationships. Conflicting goals and activities Relationships with parties whose goals or activities directly conflict with the CMA’s objects, mission or vision should be avoided. This does not preclude discussion with others or participation in events for the purposes of obtaining information, monitoring or lobbying. Transparency The terms and conditions of the activity or relationship should be transparent. Transparency promotes an openness to scrutiny and serves to enhance accountability and to discourage relationships or activities that could be considered problematic. The principle is generally applicable except in connection to matters related to competitive advantage, trade secret or a reasonable agreement of confidentiality. Compliance and accountability Processes must be in place to ensure that proposed and ongoing activities or relationships are appropriately reviewed for compliance with and clear accountability for these principles. These include the activities of the secretariat and the corporate subsidiaries.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2020-02-29

Date

2016-02-27

Topics

Health information and e-health

Text

Electronic tools are now being used more widely in medicine than ever before. A majority of physicians in Canada have adopted electronic medical records (EMRs)-75% of physicians use EMRs to enter or retrieve clinical patient notes, and 80% use electronic tools to access laboratory/diagnostic test results. The increased use of point-of-care tools and information repositories has resulted in the mass digitization and storage of clinical information, which provides opportunities for the use of big data analytics. Big data analytics may come to be understood as the process of examining clinical data in EMRs cross-referenced with other administrative, demographic and behavioural data sources to reveal determinants of patient health and patterns in clinical practice. Its increased use may provide opportunities to develop and enhance clinical practice tools and to improve health outcomes at both point-of-care and population levels. However, given the nature of EMR use in Canada, these opportunities may be restricted to primary care practice at this time. Physicians play a central role in finding the right balance between leveraging the advantages of big data analytics and protecting patient privacy. Guiding Principles for the Optimal Use of Data Analytics by Physicians at the Point of Care outlines basic considerations for the use of big data analytics services and highlights key considerations when responding to requests for access to EMR data, including the following: * Why will data analytics be used? Will the safety and effectiveness of patient care be enhanced? Will the results be used to inform public health measures? * What are the responsibilities of physicians to respect and protect patient and physician information, provide appropriate information during consent conversations, and review data sharing agreements and consult with EMR vendors to understand how data will be used? As physicians will encounter big data analytics in a number of ways, this document also outlines the characteristics one should be looking for when assessing the safety and effectiveness of big data analytics services: * protection of privacy * clear and detailed data sharing agreement * physician-owned and -led data collaboratives * endorsement by a professional or recognized association, medical society or health care organization * scope of services and functionality/appropriateness of data While this guidance is not a standalone document-it should be used as a supplemental reference to provincial privacy legislation-it is hoped that it can aid physicians to identify suitable big data analytics services and derive benefits from them. Introduction This document outlines basic considerations for the use of big data analytics services at the point of care or for research approved by a research ethics board. This includes considerations when responding to requests for access to data in electronic medical records (EMRs). These guiding principles build on the policies of the Canadian Medical Association (CMA) on Data Sharing Agreements: Principles for Electronic Medical Records/Electronic Health Records,1 Principles Concerning Physician Information2 and Principles for the Protection of Patients' Personal Health Information,3 the 2011 clinical vignettes Disclosing Personal Health Information to Third Parties4 and Need to Know and Circle of Care,5 and the Canadian Medical Protective Association's The Impact of Big Data on Healthcare and Medical Practice.6 These guiding principles are for information and reference only and should not be construed as legal or financial advice, nor is this document a substitute for legal or other professional advice. Physicians must always comply with all legislation that applies to big data analytics, including privacy legislation. Big data analytics in the clinical context involves the collection, use and potential disclosure of patient and physician information, both of which could be considered sensitive personal information under privacy legislation. Big data analytics has the potential to improve health outcomes, both at the point of care and at a population level. Doctors have a key role to play in finding the right balance between leveraging the advantages of big data (enhanced care, service delivery and resource management) and protecting patient privacy.7 Background A majority of physicians in Canada have adopted EMRs in their practice. The percentage of physicians using EMRs to enter or retrieve clinical patient notes increased from 26% in 2007 to 75% in 2014. Eighty percent of physicians used electronic tools to access laboratory/diagnostic test results in 2014, up from 38% in 2010.8 The increasingly broad collection of information by physicians at the point of care, combined with the growth of information repositories developed by various governmental and intergovernmental bodies, has resulted in the mass digitization and storage of clinical information. Big data is the term for data sets so large and complex that it is difficult to process them using traditional relational database management systems, desktop statistics and visualization software. What is considered "big" depends on the infrastructure and capabilities of the organization managing the data.9 Analytics is the discovery and communication of meaningful patterns in data. Analytics relies on the simultaneous application of statistics, computer programming and operations research. Analytics often favours data visualization to communicate insight, and insights from data are used to guide decision-making.10 For physicians, big data analytics may come to be understood as the process of examining the clinical data in EMRs cross-referenced with other administrative, demographic and behavioural data sources to reveal determinants of patient health and patterns in clinical practice. This information can be used to assist clinical decision-making or for research approved by a research ethics board. There are four types of big data analytics physicians may encounter in the provision of patient care. They are generally performed in the following sequence, in a continuous cycle11,12,13,14: 1. Population health analytics: Health trends are identified in the aggregate within a community, a region or a national population. The data can be derived from biomedical and/or administrative data. 2. Risk-based cost analysis: Populations are segmented into groups according to the level of risk to the patient's health and/or cost to the health system. 3. Care management: Clinicians are enabled to manage patient care according to defined care pathways and clinical protocols informed by population health analytics and risk-based cost analysis. Care management includes the following: o Clinical decision support: Outcomes are predicted and/or alternative treatments are recommended to clinicians and patients at the point of care. o Personalized/precision care: Personalized data sets, such as genomic DNA sequences for at-risk patients, are leveraged to highlight best practice treatments for patients and practitioners. These solutions may offer early detection and diagnosis before a patient develops disease symptoms. o Clinical operations: Workflow management is performed, such as wait-times management, mining historical and unstructured data for patterns to predict events that may affect care. o Continuing education and professional development: Longitudinal performance data are combined across institutions, classes, cohorts or programs with correlating patient outcomes to assess models of education and/or develop new programs. 4. Performance analytics: Metrics for quality and efficiency of patient care are cross-referenced with clinical decision-making and performance data to assess clinical performance. This cycle is also sometimes understood as a component of "meaningful" or "enhanced" use of EMRs. How might physicians encounter big data analytics? Many EMRs run analytics both visibly (e.g., as a function that can be activated at appropriate junctures in the care pathway) and invisibly (e.g., as tools that run seamlessly in the background of an EMR). Physicians may or may not be aware when data are being collected, analyzed, tailored or presented by big data analytics services. However, many jurisdictions are strengthening their laws and standards, and best practices are gradually emerging.15 Physicians may have entered into a data sharing agreement with their EMR vendor when they procured an EMR for their practice. Such agreements may include provisions to share de-identified (i.e., anonymized) and/or aggregate data with the EMR vendor for specified or unspecified purposes. Physicians may also receive requests from third parties to share their EMR data. These requests may come from various sources: * provincial governments * intergovernmental agencies * national and provincial associations, including medical associations * non-profit organizations * independent researchers * EMR vendors, service providers and other private corporations National Physician Survey results indicate that in 2014, 10% of physicians had shared data from their EMRs for the purposes of research, 10% for chronic disease surveillance and 8% for care improvement. Family physicians were more likely than other specialists to share with public health agencies (22% v. 11%) and electronic record vendors (13% v. 2%). Specialists were more likely than family physicians to share with researchers (59% v. 37%), hospital departments (47% v. 20%) and university departments (28% v. 15%). There is significant variability across the provinces with regard to what proportion of physicians are sharing information from their EMRs, which is affected by the presence of research initiatives, research objectives defined by the approval of a research ethics board, the adoption rates of EMRs among physicians in the province and the functionality of those EMRs.16 For example, there are family practitioners across Canada who provide data to the Canadian Primary Care Sentinel Surveillance Network (CPCSSN). The CPCSSN is a multi-disease EMR surveillance and research system that allows family physicians, epidemiologists and researchers to understand and manage chronic care conditions for patients. Health information is collected from EMRs in the offices of participating family physicians, specifically information about Canadians suffering from chronic and mental health conditions and three neurologic conditions, including Alzheimer's and related dementias.17 In another example, the Canadian Partnership Against Cancer's Surgical Synoptic Reporting Initiative captures standardized information about surgery at the point of care and transmits the surgical report to other health care personnel. Surgeons can use the captured information, which gives them the ability to assess adherence to the clinical evidence and safety procedures embedded in the reporting templates, to track their own practices and those of their community.18 The concept of synoptic reporting-whereby a physician provides anonymized data about their practice in return for an aggregate report summarizing the practice of others -can be expanded to any area in which an appropriate number of physicians are willing to participate. Guiding principles for the use of big data analytics These guiding principles are designed to give physicians a starting point as they consider the use of big data analytics in their practices: * The objective of using big data analytics must be to enhance the safety and/or effectiveness of patient care or for the purpose of health promotion. * Should a physician use big data analytics, it is the responsibility of the physician to do so in a way that adheres to their legislative, regulatory and/or professional obligations. * Physicians are responsible for the privacy of their individual patients. Physicians may wish to refer to the CMA's policy on Principles for the Protection of Patients' Personal Health Information.19 * Physicians are responsible for respecting and protecting the privacy of other physicians' information. Physicians may wish to refer to the CMA's policy on Principles Concerning Physician Information.20 * When physicians enter into and document a broad consent discussion with their patient, which can include the electronic management of health information, this agreement should convey information to cover the elements common to big data analytics services. * Physicians may also wish to consider the potential for big data analytics to inform public health measures and enhance health system efficiency and take this into account when responding to requests for access to data in an EMR. * Many EMR vendors provide cloud-based storage to their clients, so information entered into an EMR may be available to the EMR vendor in a de-identified and/or aggregate state. Physicians should carefully read their data sharing agreement with their EMR vendor to understand how and why the data that is entered into an EMR is used, and/or they should refer to the CMA's policy on the matter, Data Sharing Agreements: Principles for Electronic Medical Records/Electronic Health Records.21 * Given the dynamic nature of this emerging tool, physicians are encouraged to share information about their experiences with big data analytics and its applications with colleagues. Characteristics of safe and effective big data analytics services 1. Protection of privacy Privacy and security concerns present a challenge in linking big data in EMRs. As data are linked, it becomes increasingly difficult to de-identify individual patients.22 As care is increasingly provided in interconnected, digital environments, physicians are having to take on the role of data stewardship. To that end, physicians may wish to employ conservative risk assessment practices-"should we" as opposed to "can we" when linking data sources-and obtain express patient consent, employing a "permission-based" approach to the collection and stewardship of data. 2. A clear and detailed data sharing agreement Physicians entering into a contract with an EMR vendor or other third party for provision of services should understand how and when they are contributing to the collection of data for the purposes of big data analytics services. There are template data sharing agreements available, which include the basic components of safe and effective data sharing, such as the model provided by the Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario.23 Data sharing agreements may include general use and project-specific use, both of which physicians should assess before entering into the agreement. When EMR access is being provided to a ministry of health and/or regional health authority, the data sharing agreement should distinguish between access to administrative data and access to clinical data. Physicians may wish to refer to the CMA's policy on Data Sharing Agreements: Principles for Electronic Medical Records/Electronic Health Records.24 3. Physician-owned and -led data collaboratives In some provinces there may exist opportunities to share clinical data in physician-owned and -led networks to reflect on and improve patient care. One example is the Physicians Data Collaborative in British Columbia, a not-for-profit organization open to divisions of family practice.25 Collaboratives such as this one are governed by physicians and driven by a desire to protect the privacy and safety of patients while producing meaningful results for physicians in daily practice. Participation in physician-owned data collaboratives may ensure that patient data continue to be managed by physicians, which may lead to an appropriate prioritization of physicians' obligations to balance patient-centred care and patient privacy. 4. Endorsement by a professional or other recognized association or medical society or health care organization When considering use of big data analytics services, it is best to select services created or endorsed by a professional or other recognized association or medical society. Some health care organizations, such as hospitals, may also develop or endorse services for use in their clinical environments. Without such endorsement, physicians are advised to proceed with additional caution. 5. Scope of services and functionality/appropriateness of data Physicians may wish to seek out information from EMR vendors and service providers about how big data analytics services complement the process of diagnosis and about the range of data sources from which these services draw. While big data analytics promises insight into population health and practice trends, if it is not drawing from an appropriate level of cross-referenced sources it may present a skewed picture of both.26 Ultimately, the physician must decide if the sources are appropriately diverse. Physicians should expect EMR vendors and service providers to make clear how and why they draw the information they do in the provision of analytics services. Ideally, analytics services should integrate population health analytics, risk-based cost analysis, care management services (such as point-of-care decision support tools) and performance analytics. Physicians should expect EMR vendors to allocate sufficient health informatics resources to information management, technical infrastructure, data protection and response to breaches in privacy, and data extraction and analysis.27,28 Physicians may also wish to consider the appropriateness of data analytics services in the context of their practices. Not all data will be useful for some medical specialties, such as those treating conditions that are relatively rare in the overall population. The potential for new or enhanced clinical practice tools informed by big data analytics may be restricted to primary care practice at this time.29 Finally, predictive analytics often make treatment recommendations that are designed to improve the health outcomes in a population, and these recommendations may conflict with physicians' ethical obligations to act in the best interests of individual patients and respect patients' autonomous decision-making).30 References 1 Canadian Medical Association. Data sharing agreements: principles for electronic medical records/electronic health records [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2009. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD09-01.pdf 2 Canadian Medical Association. Principles concerning physician information [CMA policy]. CMAJ 2002 167(4):393-4. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/PolicyPDF/PD02-09.pdf 3 Canadian Medical Association. Principles for the protection of patients' personal health information [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2010. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD11-03.pdf 4 Canadian Medical Association. Disclosing personal health information to third parties. Ottawa: The Association; 2011. Available: www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/CMA_Disclosure_third_parties-e.pdf 5 Canadian Medical Association. Need to know and circle of care. Ottawa: The Association; 2011. Available: www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/CMA_Need_to_know_circle_care-e.pdf 6 Canadian Medical Protective Association. The impact of big data on healthcare and medical practice. Ottawa: The Association; no date. Available: https://oplfrpd5.cmpa-acpm.ca/documents/10179/301372750/com_14_big_data_design-e.pdf 7 Kayyali B, Knott D, Van Kuiken S. The 'big data' revolution in US health care: accelerating value and innovation. New York: McKinsey & Company; 2013. p. 1. 8 College of Family Physicians of Canada, Canadian Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. National physician survey, 2014. National results by FP/GP or other specialist, sex, age and all physicians. Q7. Ottawa: The Colleges and Association; 2014. Available: http://nationalphysiciansurvey.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/2014-National-EN-Q7.pdf 9 Anonymous. Data, data everywhere. The Economist 2010 Feb 27. Available: www.economist.com/node/15557443 10 Anonymous. Data, data everywhere. The Economist 2010 Feb 27. Available: www.economist.com/node/15557443 11 Canada Health Infoway. Big data analytics in health. Toronto: Canada Health Infoway; 2013. Available: www.infoway-inforoute.ca/index.php/resources/technical-documents/emerging-technology/doc_download/1419-big-data-analytics-in-health-white-paper-full-report (accessed 2014 May 16). 12 Ellaway RH, Pusic MV, Galbraith RM, Cameron T. 2014 Developing the role of big data and analytics in health professional education. Med Teach 2014;36(3):216-222. 13 Marino DJ. Using business intelligence to reduce the cost of care. Healthc Financ Manage 2014;68(3):42-44, 46. 14 Porter ME, Lee TH. The strategy that will fix health care. Harv Bus Rev 2013;91(10):50-70. 15 Baggaley C. Data protection in a world of big data: Canadian Medical Protective Association information session [presentation]. 2014 Aug 20. Available: https://oplfrpd5.cmpa-acpm.ca/documents/10179/301372750/com_2014_carmen_baggaley-e.pdf 16 College of Family Physicians of Canada, Canadian Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. National physician survey, 2014. National results by FP/GP or other specialist, sex, age and all physicians. Q10. Ottawa: The Colleges and Association; 2014. Available: http://nationalphysiciansurvey.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/2014-National-EN-Q10.pdf 17 Canadian Primary Care Sentinel Surveillance Network. Available: http://cpcssn.ca/ (accessed 2014 Nov 15). 18 Canadian Partnership Against Cancer. Sustaining action toward a shared vision: 2012-2017 strategic plan. Toronto: The Partnership; no date. Available: www.partnershipagainstcancer.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2015/03/Sustaining-Action-Toward-a-Shared-Vision_accessible.pdf 19 Canadian Medical Association. Principles for the protection of patients' personal health information [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2011. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD11-03.pdf 20 Canadian Medical Association. Principles for the protection of patients' personal health information [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2011. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD11-03.pdf 21 Canadian Medical Association. Data sharing agreements: principles for electronic medical records/electronic health records [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2009. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD09-01.pdf 22 Weber G, Mandl KD, Kohane IS. Finding the missing link for big biomedical data . JAMA 2014;311(24):2479-2480. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.4228. 23 Information and Privacy Commissioner of Ontario. Model data sharing agreement. Toronto: The Commissioner; 1995. Available: www.ipc.on.ca/images/Resources/model-data-ag.pdf 24 Canadian Medical Association. Data sharing agreements: principles for electronic medical records/electronic health records [CMA policy]. Ottawa: The Association; 2009. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD09-01.pdf 25 Physicians Data Collaborative. Overview. Available: www.divisionsbc.ca/datacollaborative/home 26 Cohen IG, Amarasingham R, Shah A, Xie B, Lo B. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. Health Aff 2014;33(7):1139-1147. 27 Rhoads J, Ferrara L. Transforming healthcare through better use of data. Electron Healthc 2012;11(1):e27. 28 Canadian Medical Protective Association. The impact of big data and healthcare and medical practice. Ottawa: The Association; no date. Available: https://oplfrpd5.cmpa-acpm.ca/documents/10179/301372750/com_14_big_data_design-e.pdf 29 Genta RM, Sonnenberg A. Big data in gastroenterology research. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;11(6):386-390. 30 Cohen IG, Amarasingham R, Shah A, Xie B, Lo B. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. Health Aff 2014;33(7):1139-1147.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Date

2016-05-20

Topics

Health care and patient safety

Population health/ health equity/ public health

Text

One in five Canadians suffer from a mental health problem or illness in any given year. Mental illness costs Canada over $50 billion annually in health care costs, lost productivity and reductions in health-related quality of life. The social costs of poor mental health are high; a person with serious mental illness is at high risk of experiencing poverty, homelessness and unemployment. Despite the widespread prevalence of mental health disorders, it is estimated that fewer than one-third of people affected by them will seek treatment. This is due in large part to the stigma society attaches to mental illness, which can lead to discriminatory treatment in the workplace or the health care system. In recent years, awareness of mental health issues has risen considerably in Canada. However, much still needs to be done to ensure that Canadians who require mental health care have timely access to the treatment and support they need. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) and Canadian Psychiatric Association (CPA) recommend that all stakeholders, and governments at all levels, work together toward developing a mental health care system that incorporates the following elements:

Comprehensive, patient-centred care and evidence-based treatment for mental health disorders. This includes enhancing collaboration and teamwork among health professionals, patients and their families; providing education and resources for health professionals; and supporting ongoing research to identify and disseminate best clinical practices.

Timely access to mental health services. The health care system should ensure an appropriate supply, distribution and mix of accredited mental health professionals, ensure equitable coverage of essential mental health care and treatment, and provide appropriate services for populations with unique needs, such as children and older Canadians.

Adequate supports in the community, for example in schools and workplaces, to promote mental health, identify mental health issues in a timely manner and support people with mental illness as they seek to function optimally.

Reduction of stigma and discrimination faced by Canadians with mental health disorders, in the health care system and in society. Summary of recommendations Comprehensive, patient-centred care and evidence-based treatment Governments and health care systems 1. Develop and support a continuum of evidence-based, patient-centred services for the promotion of mental health and treatment of mental illness, in the community and in hospitals, with smooth transitions and linkages between each level. 2. Develop and implement models of collaborative mental health care in the community, with input from key stakeholders including the public, patients and their families, evaluate their effectiveness and encourage the adoption of those that demonstrate success. 3. Develop and implement a national caregiver strategy and expand the financial and emotional support programs currently offered to informal caregivers. 4. Continue to develop, implement and monitor mental health indicators that reflect both health system performance and population health, regularly report the results to the public and use them to improve the delivery of mental health services in Canada. 5. Increase funding for mental health research so that it is proportionate to the burden of mental illness on Canada’s health care system. Medical faculties, professional associations and the health care systems 6. Continue to develop evidence-based guidelines and professional development programs on mental health treatment and management, for all health care providers. 7. Continue to conduct research into best practices in mental health care and treatment and communicate the results of this research promptly to health care providers and the public. Appropriate provision and funding of mental health services Governments and health care systems Address current gaps in access to mental health services in the following ways: 8. Ensure that mental health services are appropriately funded to effectively meet the needs of Canadians. 9. Make mental health a priority with all levels of government and ensure stable and appropriate funding. 10. Establish standards for access to mental health services, including appropriate maximum wait times, and measure and report them on an ongoing basis. 11. Fund and support primary health care delivery models that include mental health promotion and mental illness treatment among the services they provide and identify and address the barriers to their implementation. 12. Increase funding for access to evidence-based psychotherapies and counselling services for mental disorders. 13. Establish a program of comprehensive prescription drug coverage to ensure that all Canadians have access to medically necessary drug therapies. 14. Continue to develop linkages between remote communities and larger health centres, including telehealth and e-health services, to ensure adequate access to mental health services by people in smaller communities. Health professional associations 15. Work with governments and other stakeholders to develop a mental health human resources plan that optimizes the scope of practice of every health professional, is culturally appropriate and takes into account Canada’s diverse geography. 16. Undertake a national study of ways to optimize the supply, mix and distribution of psychiatrists in Canada and present its findings/recommendations to governments. Adequate community supports outside the health sector Governments 17. Ensure the availability of school-based mental health promotion and mental illness prevention programs, and programs that address school-related problems, such as bullying, that are associated with mental distress. 18. Work with employers and other stakeholders to support mental health programs for workplaces. 19. Provide programs and services to improve the interface between people with mental illnesses and the criminal justice system. 20. Expand programs that provide housing for people with mental illness. Reduction of stigma and discrimination Governments and the health care system 21. Incorporate identification and elimination of stigma as a quality of care indicator in the ongoing monitoring of health system performance at all levels. 22. Implement and evaluate national public awareness and education strategies to counteract the stigma associated with mental illness. 23. Enforce legislation and regulations to guard against discrimination against people with mental illness. Professional education 24. Incorporate effective anti-stigma education into the entire medical education continuum (medical school, residency and continuing professional development) for all physicians and other health professionals. 25. Incorporate effective anti-stigma education into professional development programs at hospitals and other health care facilities. Introduction Mental health disorders impose a heavy burden on Canadians and their health care system. In any given year, one in five Canadians will suffer from a mental health problem or illness. It is estimated that 10% to 20% of Canadian youth are affected by a mental health disorder. By age 40, 50% of Canadians will have had a mental illness. Mental illness can shorten life expectancy; for example, people with schizophrenia die as much as 20 years earlier than the population average. This is due both to higher rates of suicide and substance abuse and to a poorer prognosis for conditions such as heart disease, diabetes and cancer. Suicide is the second leading cause of death (after injuries) for Canadians aged 15 to 34. For people with mental health disorders, the effect on their lives goes beyond their interaction with the health care system; a person with serious mental illness is at high risk of experiencing poverty, homelessness and unemployment. Mental health disorders are costly to Canada’s health care system and to its economy. A third of hospital stays in Canada and 25% of emergency department visits are due to mental health disorders. It is estimated that mental illness costs Canada over $50 billion per year, including health care costs, lost productivity and reductions in health-related quality of life. Despite the widespread prevalence of mental health disorders, it is estimated that only one- quarter to one-third of people affected by them will seek treatment. This could be due in part to the stigma society attaches to mental illness, which deters many people from seeking needed treatment because they fear ostracism by their friends or discriminatory treatment in the workplace or the health care system. Those who do seek treatment may have a difficult time finding it. According to Statistics Canada, in 2012 almost a third of Canadians who sought mental health care reported that their needs were not met or only partially met. Lack of access to family physicians, psychiatrists and other health care providers contributes to this deficit. Though mental illnesses constitute more than 15% of the disease burden in Canada, the country spends only about seven cents of every public health care dollar on mental illness (7%), below the 10% to 11% of spending devoted to mental illness in countries such as New Zealand and the United Kingdom.4 Since 2000, however, Canadians’ awareness of mental health issues has risen considerably. The seminal 2006 report entitled Out of the Shadows at Last by the Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology, chaired by Senator Michael Kirby, made a number of recommendations aimed at increasing awareness, improving access to mental health services and reducing the stigma of mental illness. As a result of this report, in 2007 the federal government established the Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC) to be a catalyst for improving the mental health system and changing the attitudes and behaviours of Canadians around mental health issues. In 2012, the MHCC released Canada’s first mental health strategy, “Changing Directions, Changing Lives.” As part of her mandate from the prime minister following the 2015 federal election, Canada’s health minister has been asked to “engage provinces and territories in the development of a new multi-year Health Accord [that will] make high quality mental health services more available to Canadians who need them.” Nearly all provincial governments have also developed mental health strategies for their own jurisdictions. Much still needs to be done to translate heightened awareness into improvements in service provision to give Canadians who require mental health care timely access to the evidence-based, patient-centred treatment and support they need. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) and Canadian Psychiatric Association (CPA) agree it is time to make mental health a high priority in Canada. The CMA and CPA recommend that all stakeholders, and governments at all levels, work together toward developing a mental health care system that is driven by needs-based plans with clear performance measures and that receives an appropriate share of health care funding. This position statement discusses and makes recommendations on issues relating to access to mental health care, with a focus on:

comprehensive, patient-centred care and evidence-based treatment for mental health disorders;

appropriately funded primary, specialty and community mental health treatment and support services;

adequate community supports for people with mental health disorders; and

reduction of the stigma and discrimination faced by Canadians with mental health disorders. Comprehensive, patient-centred care and evidence-based treatment The goal of mental health care in Canada should be to allow patients’ needs to be met in the most appropriate, timely and cost-effective manner possible. Current best practice suggests that care for patients with mental health disorders should be provided using models that incorporate the following principles. Patient-centred care One of the fundamental principles of health care is that it be patient centred. CMA defines patient-centred care as “seamless access to the continuum of care in a timely manner … that takes into consideration the individual needs and preferences of the patient and his/her family and treats the patient with respect and dignity.” For treatment of mental health disorders, it is essential that patients be core members of the health care team, working with health care providers to address their individual needs, preferences and aspirations and to seek their personal paths to well-being. Physicians and other health professionals can help patients make choices about their treatment and can provide information and support to patients and their families as they seek to cope with the effects of their illnesses and live functional lives. A continuum of mental health services Mental health disorders can be complex and can vary in severity. A patient may have short-term coping difficulties that can be resolved with counselling or a severe psychotic illness that requires frequent hospital care and intensive, lifelong support. This range of needs requires that the health care system provide different levels of care, including:

community-based programs to promote and maintain mental health and to facilitate early identification of problems requiring intervention;

community-based primary health care, including collaborative care teams, which focus on providing mental health maintenance programs and on treating high-prevalence conditions such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders and addictions;

specialized services in the community for patients with greater needs, which can be delivered through a variety of means, including community-based psychiatrists, interdisciplinary family health teams that incorporate psychiatric services and specialized interdisciplinary teams such as assertive community treatment (ACT) teams ;

acute-care mental health services including community crisis teams and beds, psychiatric emergency services and inpatient beds in community hospitals, and specialized psychiatric hospitals;

a continuum of residential care services including long-term care facilities;

seamless, integrated transitions from one level of care to another, and across age groups (e.g., from youth to adult to senior mental health services);

appropriate services for special populations, including children and adolescents, and adults with dementia;

specialized psychiatric services for patients with complex mental illnesses such as eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and personality disorders; and

community-based programs that provide housing, vocational support and other services to optimize community integration of people with mental illness. Mental health care should ideally be provided in the context of caring for the patient’s overall health, taking into account any physical conditions for which the patient is receiving or may receive treatment. Collaborative and team-based mental health care Within this continuum, a variety of health care professionals with different skills and education provide mental health services in Canada. They include:

primary care physicians (family physicians and general practitioners);

psychiatrists (hospital and community based);

other specialist physicians (including emergency physicians, paediatricians, geriatricians);

other health professionals (psychologists, nurses, pharmacists, occupational therapists, social workers); and

case managers, peer support workers and system navigators. Collaborative models enable a variety of mental health care providers to work with patients and their families to provide effective, coordinated care according to a mutually agreed plan. Collaborative partnerships in mental health care have demonstrated benefits including symptom and functional improvement, reduced disability days and improved adherence to medication. Elements of a successful collaborative partnership include:

effective linkages among psychiatrists, primary care providers and other mental health professionals, including a seamless process for consultation and referral;

effective communication and information flow;

use of technology, such as electronic health records and telemedicine, to facilitate collaboration among providers in all health care settings;

coordination of care plans and clinical activities to ensure the most effective care and efficient use of resources; and

integration of mental health and primary care providers within a single service or team (in some cases, providers may work in the same practice setting).13 Education and resources for health professionals Since mental health disorders are pervasive and are often associated with other chronic conditions such as heart disease, health care providers of all disciplines and specialties often encounter them while caring for their patients. The Mental Health Core Competencies for Physicians report, prepared collaboratively by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, the MHCC, the College of Family Physicians of Canada, CMA and CPA, proposes goals, principles and core mental health competencies to provide guidance to physicians of all specialties. The intent is to improve access to mental health services; improve the experience of care, including reducing stigma; recognize and address the interaction between physical and mental health; and provide practice support for physicians. To support physicians and other health care providers in treating mental health disorders, clinical and practice resources should be available to them, including:

early education in medical school and residency on mental health promotion, diagnosis and treatment of mental health conditions, and liaison with other community resources, for all specialties;

clinical practice tools including practice guidelines, clinical pathways and online decision support including prescribing guidelines for the appropriate use of psychiatric drugs;

online continuing professional development (CPD) programs ;

enhanced interprofessional education for all providers (psychiatrists, family physicians, nurses, social workers, occupational therapists, peer support workers, patients, their family members and others as relevant) ; and

evidence-based, user-friendly education and support tools for patients, which physicians can recommend to help them manage their conditions. Support for informal caregivers Often the burden of caring for a person with mental illness falls heavily on family or friends, and the role of the informal caregiver can be demanding financially, physically and/or emotionally. Though governments have instituted tax credits and other forms of support for caregivers, more help is required. A national caregiver strategy, developed by governments and other key stakeholders, could define a national standard of support for informal caregivers and expand the financial and emotional support programs that are currently offered. Research and evaluation Thanks to ongoing research, our knowledge of how to treat and manage mental health disorders is constantly growing and developing. However, there are still gaps in this knowledge, and research needs in the area remain substantial. CMA and CPA encourage a continued commitment to research into best practices in early identification, care and treatment of mental health disorders and to funding this research so that it is proportionate to the burden of mental illness on Canada’s health care system. Results of this research should be communicated to health professionals and the public as quickly and widely as possible, so that it can be rapidly incorporated into clinical practice. Mental health care interventions should also be routinely evaluated for their effectiveness in improving patient care, enhancing the sustainability of the health care system and increasing the overall health and well-being of Canadians. The MHCC has developed a set of 63 mental health indicators that focus on 13 specific areas, including access and treatment, the economy and workplace, and special populations such as seniors, children and youth. Other projects are underway to develop indicators to monitor and report more specifically on mental health system performance, such as use of emergency departments for mental health care, and physician follow-up after hospital treatment. Such indicators should be used on an ongoing basis to monitor the performance of the mental health care system and provide mental health professionals, planners and governments with reliable information that they can use to better meet the needs of Canadians. Recommendations Governments and health care systems 1. Develop and support a continuum of evidence-based, patient-centred services for the promotion of mental health and treatment of mental illness, in the community and in hospitals, with smooth transitions and linkages between each level. 2. Develop and implement models of collaborative mental health care in the community, with input from key stakeholders including the public, patients and their families, evaluate their effectiveness and encourage the adoption of those that demonstrate success. 3. Develop and implement a national caregiver strategy and expand the financial and emotional support programs currently offered to informal caregivers. 4. Continue to develop, implement and monitor mental health indicators that reflect both health system performance and population health, regularly report the results to the public and use them to improve the delivery of mental health services in Canada. 5. Increase funding for mental health research so that it is proportionate to the burden of mental illness on Canada’s health care system. Medical faculties, professional associations and health care systems 6. Continue to develop evidence-based guidelines and professional development programs on mental health treatment and management, for all health care providers. 7. Continue to conduct research into best practices in mental health care and treatment and communicate the results of this research promptly to health care providers and the public. Appropriate provision and funding of mental health services Appropriate provision of mental health services requires that people be able to access the right care in the right place at the right time, in both hospital and community settings. Unfortunately, because of the underfunding of the mental health care system, limited resources are available to accommodate all of those who need such services. The exact extent of lack of access to hospital and community mental health services is not well documented; for instance, provinces do not report wait times for psychiatric services. According to the 2015 Wait Time Alliance Report Card, no jurisdiction is measuring what proportion of patients is being seen within the benchmark time periods. In December 2015 the CPA expressed disappointment that “no visible progress has been made in measuring how well the health system meets the psychiatric needs of Canadians.” In the absence of community-based services, patients may have their discharge from hospital delayed. Once they are back in the community, they may be unable to find appropriate assistance, or assistance may be available but beyond their financial means. They may abandon treatment or rely on emergency departments for episodic crisis care.4 Canada should work to remedy the current deficiencies in access to mental health services so that people with mental health disorders have timely access to seamless, comprehensive care in the most appropriate setting. This includes ensuring an appropriate supply, distribution and mix of accredited mental health professionals, ensuring equitable coverage of essential health services and making appropriate services and supports available to populations with unique needs. Access to physician services Primary care For the majority of patients who seek treatment for a mental health problem, the first (often the only) point of contact is their primary care physician. As part of the comprehensive care they provide to patients, family physicians and general practitioners can provide mental health promotion and wellness counselling, detect and treat mental health disorders in their early stages and monitor the patient’s progress in the context of his or her overall health and well-being, referring to psychiatrists and other mental health professionals as needed.13 CMA has long recommended that every Canadian have an established professional relationship with a family physician who is familiar with his or her condition, needs and preferences. However, some Canadians may have difficulty finding primary medical care, since the proportion of family physicians and general practitioners to the population is not consistent across Canada. All stakeholders should continue working to ensure that every Canadian has access to comprehensive first-point-of-contact medical care. Psychiatric services Psychiatrists are physicians who complete five to seven years of specialty and subspecialty training to diagnose, treat and provide ongoing care for mental illnesses, particularly to people with complex illnesses that cannot be managed within a primary care setting alone. In addition to providing specialty treatment, psychiatrists are also active in the areas of education, research and advocacy about the importance of mental health promotion and mental illness prevention. They provide care across the lifespan, in both hospital and community settings. Patient access to psychiatrists is often limited by long wait times. It has been suggested that this is due to a shortage of psychiatrists, which is more severe in some parts of Canada than others. Recent surveys report that a number of specialists, including psychiatrists, are in the latter half of their careers, and there are concerns that the number of psychiatrists per Canadian population is declining. Though the Royal College notes that the number of psychiatric residency positions has increased in recent years, it is unclear if this is sufficient to meet current and future population needs. The CPA recommends the development of strategies to attract, train and retain practitioners in clinical psychiatry. Access to services not funded by provincial and territorial health systems Though Canada’s public health care system covers many mental health services and treatments, including physician consultations and hospital care, it does not cover all aspects of optimal treatment and care, and access to some therapies may be limited by the patient’s ability to pay. Psychiatric drugs, especially those that must be taken over many years, can pose a heavy financial burden for patients who do not have drug coverage through employer-provided benefit programs or provincial or territorial drug plans. Psychotherapies delivered by non-physician health care practitioners are generally not covered by government health plans and must, therefore, in most cases be paid for out of pocket or through private insurance plans, to which many Canadians do not have access. Federal, provincial and territorial governments should work to increase access to accredited psychological and counselling services that are evidence based and to provide comprehensive coverage of medically necessary prescription drugs for all Canadians. Some primary health care practices, such as family health teams in Ontario, have funding envelopes that they can use to contract with skilled mental health professionals to provide psychotherapy, stress management programs and other services that are not ordinarily funded through provincial health budgets. Models such as these help to make publicly funded mental health care available to patients who might otherwise have been unable to afford it. Access to mental health services for special populations For some populations, access to mental health services may be particularly problematic. For example, stakeholders should consider the needs of the following populations:

Children and youth: As up to 70% of mental health conditions first appear in adolescence or young adulthood, it is important that young people have access to mental health promotion and to appropriate assessment and treatment of mental health disorders. At present only one out of four children who need mental health services receives them.1,3 CMA and CPA particularly recommend increased supports for children in high-risk situations, such as those in foster care. The transition from the youth to the adult mental health service sectors should be smooth and well organized.

Remote areas: People in the North and other remote parts of Canada may have to travel many miles to access mental health and other health care services. This gap should be remedied by using technologies such as telehealth and e-mental health services and by strengthening communication and coordination between small communities and the larger health centres to which their residents travel for care.

Immigrants and refugees: New arrivals to Canada may have problems understanding our language and culture and may also face mental health problems as a result of traumatic experiences in their countries of origin or the stress of relocation.

Indigenous Peoples. Rates of mental health disorders, addictions and suicide are high among Canada’s First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Much of this is linked to past experience of forcible separation from their traditional languages and culture. Health service providers should work with Indigenous communities to address their distinct mental health needs appropriately.

Seniors: An estimated 10% to 15% of seniors report depression, and the rate is higher among those with concomitant physical illness and those living in long-term care facilities. Depression among older people may be under-recognized and under-treated or dismissed as a normal consequence of aging. Poor mental health is often associated with social isolation, a common problem among seniors. The majority of older adults in long-term care settings have dementia or another mental health condition. Recommendations Governments and health care systems Address current gaps in access to mental health services in the following ways: 8. Ensure that mental health services are appropriately funded to effectively meet the needs of Canadians. 9. Make mental health a priority with all levels of government and ensure stable and appropriate funding. 10. Establish standards for access to mental health services, including appropriate maximum wait times, and measure and report them on an ongoing basis. 11. Fund and support primary health care delivery models that include mental health promotion and mental illness treatment among the services they provide and identify and address the barriers to their implementation. 12. Increase funding for access to evidence-based psychotherapies and counselling services for mental disorders. 13. Establish a program of comprehensive prescription drug coverage to ensure that all Canadians have access to medically necessary drug therapies. 14. Continue to develop linkages between remote communities and larger health centres, including telehealth and e-health services, to ensure adequate access to mental health services by people in smaller communities. Health professional associations 15. Work with governments and other stakeholders to develop a mental health human resources plan that optimizes the scope of practice of every health professional, is culturally appropriate and takes into account Canada’s diverse geography. 16. Undertake a national study of ways to optimize the supply, mix and distribution of psychiatrists in Canada and present its findings/recommendations to governments. Adequate community supports outside the health sector People with mental health disorders often require not only treatment and care from the health sector but also support from the community at large to function optimally. Ideally, the community should provide an environment that supports patients as they work toward recovery and well-being. In addition, schools, workplaces and other community agencies can play an important role in promoting mental health and identifying problems that require attention. Schools Education and information should be made available to parents, teachers and health professionals to help them identify signs of mental illness or distress in children and adolescents, so they can intervene early and appropriately. School health education programs should include the promotion of mental health and incorporate self-management techniques such as mindfulness training to help young people develop resilience. Schools should also ensure that they minimize possible threats to children’s mental health, such as bullying, that may occur on their premises. Workplaces Unlike many other chronic conditions, mental illness frequently affects younger people and those in their most productive years, so the burden it imposes on Canada’s economy is high. Mental health disorders account for 30% of short-term workplace disability claims,1 and the Conference Board of Canada has estimated that six common mental health disorders cost the country’s economy more than $21 billion a year and predicts that this cost will increase to $30 billion by 2030. However, often employees do not disclose mental health problems to their employers for fear of losing their jobs, being ostracized by colleagues, or other negative consequences. Workplaces can support the mental health of their employees by:

offering mental health promotion assistance through stress management seminars, employee assistance and other programs;

training managers to identify potential mental health issues in their staff and to intervene early and appropriately;

eliminating stigma and discrimination and providing an environment in which employees feel safe disclosing their mental health issues; and

offering adequate benefits, including supplementary health insurance and supportive leave-of-absence programs. The MHCC’s Standard for Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace, released in 2013, provides guidance to employers on how to promote the mental health of their staff and intervene in cases of mental distress. Correctional services People with mental illnesses are overrepresented in the criminal justice system. Estimates suggest that rates of serious mental illness among federal offenders upon admission have increased by 60% to 70% cent since 1997.4 This places a heavy burden on corrections and law enforcement staff, who are often inadequately trained to deal with mental illness. Programs and services are needed to ensure that people with mental health disorders who run afoul of the law are identified early, given appropriate treatment throughout their incarceration and followed up on release. These could include:

training for police and other frontline criminal justice and corrections workers in how to interact with people with mental illnesses;

diversion programs, such as mental health courts, to redirect people with mental illnesses who are about to enter the criminal justice system;

comprehensive psychiatric screening, assessment and treatment for incarcerated patients with mental illnesses and common co-occurring conditions such as addiction; and

Careful handover of clinical care at the point of release from custody with engagement by mental health services in the community. Housing Mental illness increases a patient’s risk for poverty and homelessness. It is estimated that two- thirds of Canada’s homeless population have a serious mental illness. Homelessness and poverty can exacerbate existing mental health and addiction problems, hinder access to treatment and reduce life expectancy. Programs such as the MHCC’s Housing First research demonstration project can improve the social and economic circumstances of people with mental illness. The MHCC project provided no-strings-attached supportive housing for people with chronic mental health problems, giving them a secure base from which they could pursue their treatment and recovery goals. Evaluation showed that this approach reduced the rate of homelessness, improved access to treatment and support services and led to cost savings, particularly for the program participants who had the highest service-use costs. Recommendations Governments 17. Ensure the availability of school-based mental health promotion and mental illness prevention programs, and programs that address school-related problems, such as bullying, that are associated with mental distress. 18. Work with employers and other stakeholders to support mental health programs for workplaces. 19. Provide programs and services to improve the interface between people with mental illnesses and the criminal justice system. 20. Expand programs that provide housing for people with mental illness. Reduction of stigma and discrimination Many believe that the primary reason for the underfunding of the mental health care system and for the reluctance of people with mental health disorders to seek treatment is the stigma attached to their conditions. Mental illness is the most stigmatized disease state in Canada, and discriminatory behaviour toward people with mental health disorders is widespread. This can include ostracism and lack of support from peers, discrimination in the workplace and distorted public perceptions, such as the tendency to equate mental illness with violent behaviour. Discriminatory behaviour can also occur in the health care system. Experts acknowledge that stigma affects health care providers’ attitude toward patients with mental health problems.29 Though many health care providers are unaware that their language or actions can be harmful, their attitude may have negative effects on the treatment their patients receive. For example, if a patient who has been treated for a psychiatric condition reports physical symptoms, these symptoms might be attributed to the mental illness rather than to a physical condition, and as a result the patient may not receive necessary treatment. This is known as diagnostic overshadowing. , CMA and CPA recommend comprehensive efforts to change the culture of stigmatization of mental illness, in the health care system and in society. A number of interventions are underway to help reduce stigma and discrimination related to mental illness. These include public awareness programs such as the Bell Let’s Talk campaign, Mental Illness Awareness Week, sponsored by the Canadian Alliance on Mental Illness and Mental Health, and the Opening Minds program of the MHCC, which focuses on specific populations including youth and health care providers. The current consensus among experts is that the most effective interventions are those that:

are aimed at changing behaviour rather than modifying attitudes;

are ongoing rather than time limited;

are targeted to specific groups rather than to the general population; and

involve direct contact with people with mental illness. Within the health care system, professional education is a potentially important means of addressing stigma and discrimination. It has been recommended that anti-stigma education be incorporated into the medical education continuum at all levels (including residency and CPD) and for all specialties and that this education incorporate direct contact with people with mental illness, to share their stories of recovery.27 All health professionals and their associations should be encouraged to address the elimination of stigma in their educational programs. CMA and CPA have worked with partners to provide education to physicians, through workshops, online materials and other means. Recommendations Governments and the health care system 21. Incorporate identification and elimination of stigma as a quality of care indicator in the ongoing monitoring of health system performance at all levels. 22. Implement and evaluate national public awareness and education strategies to counteract the stigma associated with mental illness. 23. Enforce legislation and regulations to guard against discrimination against people with mental illness. Professional education 24. Incorporate effective anti-stigma education into the entire medical education continuum (medical school, residency and CPD) for all physicians and other health professionals. 25. Incorporate effective anti-stigma education into professional development programs at hospitals and other health care facilities. Conclusion Despite increased public awareness about mental illness, ensuring access to effective mental health services and supports remains a challenge in Canada, and the stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness remain high. CMA and CPA believe that change is possible. In an ideal future, all Canadians would feel safe acknowledging their mental health problems and seeking help for them, a range of effective, evidence-based treatments would be available for every Canadian who needs them, and communities would support Canadians as they work to promote and maintain their mental health or to recover from mental illness. It is our hope that health care providers, governments, communities, patients and their families will work together toward realizing this future. References Mental Health Commission of Canada. The Facts. Calgary (AB): The Commission; 2012. Available: http://strategy.mentalhealthcommission.ca/the-facts/ (accessed 2015 May 05). Mental Health Commission of Canada. Making the case for investing in mental health in Canada. Calgary (AB): The Commission; 2013. Chesney E, Goodwin GM, Fazel S. Risks of all-cause and suicide mortality in mental disorders: a meta-review. World Psychiatry 2014; 13 (2):53–60. Mental Health Commission of Canada. Changing directions, changing lives: the Mental Health Strategy for Canada. Calgary (AB): The Commission; 2012. Available: https://strategy.mentalhealthcommission.ca/download (accessed 2014 Sep 07). Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. Mental illnesses and addictions: facts and statistics. Toronto (ON): The Centre; 2016. Available: www.camh.ca/en/hospital/about_camh/newsroom/for_reporters/Pages/addictionmentalhealthstatistics.aspx (accessed 2016 Mar 9). Mental Health Commission of Canada. Opening minds. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2016. Available: http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/initiatives/11874/opening-minds (accessed 2016 Mar 9). Statistics Canada. Canadian Community Health Survey: mental health, 2012 [media release]. Ottawa (ON): Statistics Canada; 2013 Sep 18. Available: www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130918/dq130918a-eng.htm?HPA (accessed 2015 Sep 08). Mental Health Commission of Canada. About MHCC. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2016. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/who-we-are (accessed 2016 Mar 10). 9 Prime Minister of Canada. Minister of Health Mandate letter to the Hon. Jane Philpott, Minister of Health, November 2015. Ottawa (ON): Office of the Prime Minister of Canada; 2015. Available: http://pm.gc.ca/eng/minister-health-mandate-letter (accessed 2016 Apr 14). Canadian Medical Association. Health care transformation in Canada: change that works. Care that lasts. Ottawa (ON): The Association; 2010. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/PolicyPDF/PD10-05.PDF (accessed 2015 Sep 14). Neilson G, Chaimowitz G. Informed consent to treatment in psychiatry. A position paper of the Canadian Psychiatric Association. Can J Psychiatry. 60 (4):1-12. Available: http://publications.cpa-apc.org/media.php?mid=1889 (accessed 2016 Mar 9). Ontario ACT Association. ACT model: the team approach. [Place unknown]: The Association; 2015. Available: http://ontarioacttassociation.com/act-model/ (accessed 2015 Mar 25). Kates N, Mazowita G, Lemire F, et al. The evolution of collaborative mental health care in Canada: a shared vision for the future. A position paper developed by the Canadian Psychiatric Association and the College of Family Physicians of Canada. Can J Psychiatry. 2011; 56(5): 1-10. Available: http://www.cfpc.ca/uploadedFiles/Directories/Committees_List/Collaborative%20mental%20health%20care-2011-49-web-FIN-EN.pdf (accessed 2014 Oct 16). Whiteman H. Mental illness linked to increased risk of heart disease, stroke. Medical News Today. 2014, Oct 27. Available: www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/284461.php (accessed 2015 Mar 25). Mental Health Core Competencies Steering Committee. Mental health core competencies for physicians. Ottawa (ON): Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Mental Health Commission of Canada, College of Family Physicians of Canada, Canadian Psychiatric Association and Canadian Medical Association; 2014. Available: www.royalcollege.ca/portal/page/portal/rc/common/documents/policy/mhcc_june2014_e.pdf (accessed 2016 Mar 9). Canadian Collaborative Mental Health Initiative. Toolkits. Mississauga (ON): The Initiative; n.d.. Available: www.shared-care.ca/page.aspx?menu=69&app=266&cat1=745&tp=2&lk=no (accessed 2014 Oct 16) Curran V, Ungar T, Pauzé E. Strengthening collaboration through interprofessional education: a resource for collaborative mental health care educators. Mississauga (ON): Canadian Collaborative Mental Health Initiative; 2006 Feb. Available: www.shared-care.ca/files/EN_Strengtheningcollaborationthroughinterprofessionaleducation.pdf (accessed 2016 Mar 9). Canadian Medical Association. Health and health care for an aging population: policy summary of the Canadian Medical Association. Ottawa (ON): The Association; 2013 Feb. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD14-03.pdf (accessed 2014 Sep 14). Mental Health Commission of Canada. Informing the future: mental health indicators for Canada. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2015 Jan. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/document/68796/informing-future-mental-health-indicators-canada (accessed 2016 Mar 09). Wait Time Alliance. Time to close the gap: report card on wait times in Canada. Ottawa (ON): The Alliance; 2014 June. Available: www.waittimealliance.ca/wta-reports/2014-wta-report-card/ Canadian Psychiatric Association. Tracking access to psychiatric care needed to chart a way forward say psychiatrists [media release]. Ottawa (ON): The Association; 2015 Dec 8. Available: www.cpa-apc.org/media.php?mid=2385 (accessed 2016 Mar 09). CMA Physician Data Centre. Canadian physician statistics: general practitioners/family physicians per 100,000 population by province/territory, 1986-2014. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Medical Association; 2014. Available: www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/14-FP_per_pop.pdf (accessed 2016 Mar 09). Canadian Collaborative Centre for Physician Resources. Psychiatry: a recent profile of the profession [bulletin]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Medical Association; 2012 Apr. Available: https://www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/25-Psychiatry.pdf#search=psychiatry%20a%20recent%20profile (accessed 2016 Mar 09). Sargeant JK, Adey T, McGregor F, et al. Psychiatric human resources planning in Canada: a position paper of the Canadian Psychiatric Association. Can J Psychiatry 2010; 55 (9): 1-20. Available: http://publications.cpa-apc.org/media.php?mid=1015 (accessed 2015 Sep 14). Conference Board of Canada. Mental health issues in the labour force: reducing the economic impact on Canada. Ottawa (ON): The Board; 2012 Jul. Mental Health Commission of Canada, Canadian Standards Association. CAN/CSA-Z1003-13/BNQ 9700-803/2013 - Psychological health and safety in the workplace — prevention, promotion, and guidance to staged implementation. Toronto (ON): CSA Group; 2013. Available: http://shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-and-safety-management/cancsa-z1003-13bnq-9700-8032013/invt/z10032013 (accessed 2014 Oct 10). Mental Health Commission of Canada. Turning the key: Assessing housing and related supports for persons living with mental health problems and illnesses. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2012. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/media/3055 (accessed 2014 Oct 10). Mental Health Commission of Canada. National final report: Cross-Site At Home/Chez Soi Project. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2014. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/document/24376/national-homechez-soi-final-report (accessed 2015 May 15). Hawthorne D; Major S; Jaworski M; et al. Combatting stigma for physicians and other health professionals. Ottawa (ON): MDcme.ca; 2011. Available https://www.mdcme.ca/courseinfo.asp?id=143 (accessed 2015 May 15). Abbey SE, Charbonneau M, Tranulis C, et al. Stigma and discrimination. Can J Psychiatry 2011; 56(10): 1-9. Available: http://publications.cpa-apc.org/media.php?mid=1221 (accessed 2015 Aug 4). Pietrus M. Opening Minds interim report. Calgary (AB): Mental Health Commission of Canada; 2013. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/document/17491/opening-minds-interim-report (accessed 2015 Aug 4). Mental Health Commission of Canada. Together against stigma: changing how we see mental illness: a report on the 5th International Stigma Conference, Ottawa (ON), 2012 Jun 4–6. Ottawa (ON): The Commission; 2013. Available: www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/English/media/3347 (accessed 2014 Oct 14).

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Last Reviewed

2018-03-03

Date

2005-12-03

Replaces

Medical professionalism (2002)

Topics

Ethics and medical professionalism

Text

Medical professionalism (Update 2005) The environment in which medicine is practised in Canada is undergoing rapid and profound change. There are now continued opportunities for the medical profession to provide leadership for our patients, our communities and our colleagues through strengthened professionalism. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) is strongly committed to medical professionalism and has developed this policy both to inform physicians and others about its meaning and value and to promote its preservation and enhancement. This document outlines the major features of medical professionalism, the opportunities which exist in this area and the challenges which lie before us. Why Medical Professionalism? The medical profession is characterized by a strong commitment to the well-being of patients, high standards of ethical conduct, mastery of an ever-expanding body of knowledge and skills, and a high level of clinical independence. As individuals, physicians' personal values may vary, but as members of the medical profession they are expected to share and uphold those values that characterize the practice of medicine and the care of patients. Medical professionalism includes both the relationship between a physician and a patient and a social contract between physicians and society. Society grants the profession privileges, including exclusive or primary responsibility for the provision of certain services and a high degree of self-regulation. In return, the profession agrees to use these privileges primarily for the benefit of others and only secondarily for its own benefit. Three major features of medical professionalism - the ethic of care, clinical independence and self-regulation - benefit physicians, their patients and society: Ethic of care: This is characterized by the values of compassion, beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for persons and justice (CMA's Code of Ethics). Society benefits from the ethic of care whereby, in the provision of medical services, physicians put the interests of others ahead of their own. Dedication and commitment to the well-being of others is clearly in the interests of patients, who are the primary beneficiaries. Clinical independence: Medicine is a highly complex art and science. Through lengthy training and experience, physicians become medical experts and healers. Whereas patients have the right to decide to a large extent which medical interventions they will undergo, they expect their physicians to be free to make clinically appropriate recommendations. Although physicians recognize that they are accountable to patients, funding agencies and their peers for their recommendations, unreasonable restraints on clinical autonomy imposed by governments and administrators, whether public or private, are not in the best interests of patients, not least because they can damage the trust that is an essential component of the patient-physician relationship. Conversely, physicians are not morally obliged to provide inappropriate medical services when requested by patients despite their respect for patient autonomy. Self-regulation: Physicians have traditionally been granted this privilege by society. It includes the control of entrance into the profession by establishing educational standards and setting examinations, the licensing of physicians, and the establishment and ongoing review of standards of medical practice. In return for this privilege, physicians are expected to hold each other accountable for their behaviour and for the outcomes they achieve on behalf of their patients. Self-regulation is exercised by many different professional organizations, from medical practice partnerships to the statutory provincial/territorial licensing bodies. It has evolved into a partnership with the public. Self-regulation benefits society by taking the best advantage of the professional expertise needed to appropriately set and maintain standards of training and practice, while providing suitable accountability in matters of professional behaviour. The profession's commitment to the maintenance of those standards is demonstrated by its willingness to participate in outcomes review at many levels, from institutional quality assurance activities to formal prospective peer review, and to actively support their statutory and legislated licensing authorities. Opportunities in Medical Professionalism Over the past few years much has been written about the issue of medical professionalism in both the lay and scientific media. The practice of medicine has changed considerably, and with these changes have come challenges but also opportunities. The medical profession continues to be a greatly respected one, and it is still generally seen as being distinct from many others because of the unique nature of the physician-patient relationship. There exists now an opportunity to reinforce the professional values and priorities that have sustained medicine for so long, and to embrace new approaches which will serve it well in the years to come. Medical professionals must recognize that patients have a wide variety of resources available for their health care needs, from traditional physician services to paramedical practitioners, to complementary medicine and to information obtained from the internet. While maintaining responsibility for care of the patient as a whole, physicians must be able to interact constructively with other health care providers within an interdisciplinary team setting, and must be able to interpret information for patients and direct them to appropriate and accurate resources. The relationship of physicians with their colleagues must be strengthened and reinforced. Patient care benefits when all health care practitioners work together towards a common goal, in an atmosphere of support and collegiality. Although there are some challenges to professionalism, as outlined below, the greatest opportunity before us may be to remind physicians of the reasons they chose a career in medicine to begin with - for many, it is a calling rather than a job. In spite of the numerous recent changes in the health care system and the practice of medicine, the primary reason most physicians entered the field remains the same - the sanctity of the fiduciary relationship between physicians and their patients. The renewal of medical professionalism must be led from within the profession itself, and the CMA and its members are in a unique position to take advantage of the many opportunities which exist and to respond to the challenges we face. Challenges to Medical Professionalism Medical professionalism is being challenged from within and without. These challenges arise from pressures that may serve to undermine the ethic of care, clinical independence and self-regulation and may result, for individual physicians and the medical profession, in diminished morale and changes in lifestyle and practice patterns. These changes may have a detrimental impact on the health of physicians, and also on the quality of patient care. Resource restraints: The CMA has identified scarcity of resources, whether human or material, as undermining the ability of physicians to maintain excellence in clinical care, research and teaching. Although much attention has been paid recently to the insufficient number of physicians in Canada, and although recent developments indicate some limited cause for optimism, much work remains to be done. Issues of access to continuing professional development, workforce sustainability, inadequate numbers of training positions for new doctors, the integration of foreign-trained physicians into the workforce and the apparent inability of governments to resolve inadequacies in health care funding continue to frustrate physicians' attempts to achieve their professional goals and care for their patients. These factors all have the potential for contributing to the decline of professional morale. Bureaucratic challenges: This refers to the introduction of layers of management and policy directives between the physician and the patient. It is a result of changes that have taken place in the organization and delivery of medical care, especially the involvement of governments in all aspects of health care. The traditional one-on-one relationship of physician and patient is now set within a context of government and corporate interests, in which the physician may sometimes assume the status of an employee, that pose considerable challenges to the exercise of the professional values of clinical autonomy and self-regulation. Moreover, while the responsibility for organizing the delivery of scarce resources has been increasingly transferred from physicians to managers, physicians are still ultimately responsible, both morally and legally, for providing quality care. Although the increasing complexity of health care delivery requires recourse to sophisticated management systems, there is a danger that as physicians become increasingly answerable to or constrained by third parties, their ability to fulfill their commitment to their individual patients can be seriously compromised. Unprofessional conduct: Some physicians do not uphold the values of the profession. A few put their interests or the interests of third parties ahead of the interests of their patients. The profession needs to meet this challenge by demonstrating its ability to uphold its values and its commitment to doing so. Supporting strong and transparent self-regulatory systems will be a key component of this endeavor. Commercialism: In recent years the market mentality has expanded its influence to many areas formerly outside its domain, including governments, universities and the professions. Health care has become a major industry, one in which physicians play a central role, and commercial interests, whether private or public, may pressure physicians to compromise their responsibilities to their patients, research subjects and society. The potential for physicians and medical associations to become drawn into conflict-of-interest situations is increasing. Commercialism may compromise both the ethic of care and clinical independence by its reinterpretation of medical care as a commodity and the patient-physician relationship as something less than a fiduciary relationship. There is an inherent opportunity for the profession to address the issue of conflict of interest and to re-affirm its primary obligation and dedication to the patients it cares for. Consumerism: Physicians strongly support the right of patients to make informed decisions about their medical care. However, the CMA's Code of Ethics requires physicians to recommend only those diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that they consider to be beneficial to the patient or to others. There is a proliferation of health information and advertising in the popular media and on the Internet that may be inaccurate or poorly understood. Taken to its extreme, consumerism can be detrimental not just to professionalism but to the well-being of patients and the interests of society. Industrialization: This refers to the increased division and specialization of labour in the delivery of health care, whereby the delivery of health care may become fragmented. There is increasing pressure within medicine to improve efficiency and optimize cost savings. While these may be important goals in the broader context of health care, we must ensure that they do not impact negatively on the doctor-patient relationship. Realizing Opportunities and Dealing with Challenges Individual physicians should protect, enhance and promote professionalism in medicine by reflecting the values of the medical profession in their practice and by contributing to the efforts of organized medicine to maintain and enhance the ethic of care, clinical autonomy and self-regulation. These efforts require action in 3 areas: policy, education and self-regulation. Policy: All those involved in health care - physicians, patients, other health care providers, administrators, governments and the general public (as taxpayers, potential patients, relatives of patients, etc.) - should be informed about the values of the medical profession and where it stands on issue related to accountability, clinical autonomy and self-regulation. Policies of medical associations should reflect these values and should speak clearly on topics such as conflict of interest. Policies should be reviewed frequently and updated when necessary, in order to take account of the rapidly changing environment in which medicine is practiced. The topic of professionalism should be granted increasing importance in policy discussions. Policies should be developed and updated in related areas, such as conflict of interest and physician-industry interactions. In order to be consistent and trustworthy, medical associations should adhere to the same high standards of behaviour that they require of individual physicians. The challenges posed by resource restraints, bureaucratization, unprofessional conduct, commercialism and consumerism are no less serious for associations than for individuals and require sound harmonized policies for both. The CMA has an opportunity for leadership in this regard. Education: However professional values and policies are established, they must be transmitted to current and future members of the profession in order to have any effect. Like most other aspects of medical education, the values of professionalism are both taught and modeled. Professionalism should be an essential component of the formal medical curriculum at the undergraduate and postgraduate training levels. Moreover, active demonstration of professionalism such as role modeling by physicians, and in the internal culture of the medical schools and hospitals where students receive their training, should be used to advantage and challenged when necessary. Likewise for physicians in practice, formal continuing professional development programs and role modeling by other physicians are important for the maintenance of professionalism. Physicians need to communicate and test their understanding of their professional role with others involved in patient care at numerous levels. Such initiatives, which would engage patients, other professionals and policy-makers, require further development. The CMA and other medical organizations have taken leadership roles in assisting patients and health care providers in making informed decisions by creating numerous continuing professional development opportunities and readily available clinical information for physicians, effective patient education materials, self-help books and validated Web sites, including www.cma.ca. These efforts need to continue and be strengthened. Self-regulation: In order to maintain self-regulation in an environment that is increasingly suspicious of such privileges, the medical profession has to demonstrate that self regulation benefits society in general. This requires, among other things, that the medical profession continue to demonstrate its commitment to the tasks required by self-regulation, including setting and enforcing high standards of behaviour for both individual physicians and medical associations. Conclusion Physicians continue to value medical professionalism highly. They believe that it benefits patients greatly and that it should be preserved and enhanced. Professionalism will continue to be based on the relationship of trust between patients and physicians, and the primacy of the physician-patient relationship. It encompasses the values of compassion, beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for persons and justice. As professionals, physicians will strive to maintain high standards of ethics, clinical practice and education and demonstrate a capacity for social responsibility through self-regulation and accountability (see CMA Policy Statement The Future of Medicine). The CMA welcomes opportunities to engage in dialogue with others as to how professionalism in health care can be preserved and enhanced for the benefit of patients, physicians and society in general.

Less detail

Policy Type

Policy document

Date

2016-12-03

Topics

Health human resources

Physician practice/ compensation/ forms

Text

Beginning in the 1990s most jurisdictions established regional health authorities (RHAs) with consolidated medical staff structures and there has been a trend toward requiring all physicians practising in a region to hold an appointment with the RHA in order to access health resources such as diagnostic imaging and laboratory services, irrespective of whether they hold hospital privileges or not. Subsequent to the consolidation of medical staff governance there have been several developments over the past decade that have implications for where and how physicians can practise, and for their ability to advocate freely on behalf of their patients. These include: * the establishment of formal physician resource plans that link the appointment process to the ability to participate in the provincial/territorial medical insurance plan; * a greater focus on clinical governance that includes detailed attention on scope of practice and privileges; * a growing concern about the ability of physicians to advocate on behalf of their patients and the communities they serve; and * an increase in the number of physicians entering into employment or contractual arrangements. The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) puts forward the following recommendations for governments, regulatory authorities, RHAs and medical staff structures within RHAs and hospitals. Recommendations Where physician appointments are to be approved in relation to Physician Resource Plans, the CMA recommends that such plans must: * take into consideration both population need and projected physician supply; * include transparency in the provision of information about available practice opportunities and on the criteria and processes through which applications for appointments are approved; * be based on a documented methodology with results in the public domain; and * be based on a medium-term projection range, using the most current and reliable data available, and be regularly reviewed and updated. The CMA recommends that the application of standardized credential templates must take into consideration the quality of care being provided by the physician and local circumstances such as the complement of medical and hospital resources available locally and the timeliness of proximity to secondary and tertiary care. The CMA strongly supports the implementation of policy to safeguard physicians from fear of reprisal and retaliation when speaking out as advocates for their patients and communities, and the right and duty of medical officers of health to speak publicly to the citizens they serve. The CMA supports provincial/territorial amendments to public health legislation to protect the right and duty of medical officers of health to speak publicly to the citizens they serve without political interference or risk of adverse employment consequences. The CMA believes that medical staff bylaws should expressly extend to physicians under contract entitlement to the procedural protections set out in the hospital or health authority bylaws. The CMA recommends that the processes of granting appointments, reappointments and privileges and allocating resources respect the following principles: 1. All processes should be fair, equitable, documented and transparent and should protect confidentiality. 2. Criteria for reappointment should be clearly specified in medical staff bylaws and should be no more onerous than necessary to verify the ongoing provision of quality care by the medical staff. 3. A regular evaluation of appointed physicians should be conducted by the appropriate clinical chief. 4. The quality of a physician's care is the most important criterion to be considered at the time of appointment, reappointment and the granting of privileges. 5. The information required for the granting of appointments, reappointments or privileges or for the allocation of medical resources must be accurate, valid and appropriate. 6. The processes of granting appointments, reappointments and privileges and allocating resources should recognize and accommodate the changes in practice patterns that may occur over the medical career cycle. 7. Physicians with established community practices have a significant investment in their practice and the community; this investment should be considered at the time of reappointment or change in privileges. 8. A recommendation, without just cause, to withdraw an appointment, to restrict privileges or to significantly reduce resources available to a physician must include appropriate compensation based on individual circumstances. 9. The reporting of legal actions or disciplinary actions as part of the reappointment or reappointment process should be restricted to those matters in which a final determination has been rendered and in which there has been an adverse finding to the physician. Objective This policy outlines the principles that should be considered for the granting of physician appointments, reappointments, privileges and access to resources at the health care facility, district or RHA level. Key definitions Appointment: The process by which a physician joins the medical staff of a health region or health facility in order to access resources to care for patients. Credentialing: An approach to obtaining, verifying and assessing the qualifications of a health professional against consistent criteria for the purposes of licensing and/or granting privileges.1 Privileges: Permission from an authorized body to a health care provider to conduct a specific scope and content of patient care. Privileges are granted based upon an evaluation of the provider's training, experience and competence related to the service, and are specific to a defined practice setting.1 Clinical peer review: The process by which physician peers assess each other's performance. A peer is a physician with relevant clinical experience in similar health care environments who also has the competence to contribute to the review of other physicians' performance.2 Background Historically the formal appointment process applied to physicians wishing to practise in hospitals. Beginning in the 1990s most jurisdictions established RHAs with consolidated medical staff structures and there has been a trend toward requiring all physicians practising in a region to hold an appointment with the RHA in order to access health resources such as diagnostic imaging and laboratory services, irrespective of whether they hold hospital privileges or not. Since the CMA first adopted principles for the physician appointment and reappointment process in 1997 there have been several developments that are reviewed below: * the establishment of formal physician resource plans that link the appointment process to the ability to participate in the provincial/territorial medical insurance plan; * a greater focus on clinical governance that includes detailed attention on scope of practice and privileges; * a growing concern about the ability of physicians to advocate on behalf of their patients and the communities they serve; and * an increase in the number of physicians entering into employment or contractual arrangements. Physician Resource Plans (PRPs): New Brunswick was the first province to require physicians to have privileges with an RHA in order to obtain a billing number.3 More recently jurisdictions such as Nova Scotia (N.S.) have introduced medium to longer range PRPs that are to be used when approving new appointments. In 2012 N.S. released a PRP for 2012-2021, which has since been updated to 2013-2022.4 Under the terms of the Nova Scotia Health Authority Medical Staff Bylaws, the RHA CEO or their designate will assess applications for new appointments in relation to need and availability of resources. The assessment is to be completed within 60 days and there is no right of review or appeal of the CEO's decision.5 Manitoba's medical staff bylaws make a similar provision.6 While Ontario has not regionalized to the same extent as other jurisdictions, legislation has been introduced that proposes to make the 14 Local Health Integration Networks (LHINs) responsible for primary care planning and performance management.7 Moreover the Bill will amend the Health Insurance Act to authorize the health minister to delegate non-fee-for-service physician compensation to the LHIN. Recommendation Where physician appointments are to be approved in relation to PRPs, the CMA recommends that such plans must: * take into consideration both population need and projected physician supply; * include transparency in the provision of information about available practice opportunities and on the criteria and processes through which applications for appointments are approved; * be based on a documented methodology with results in the public domain; and * be based on a medium-term projection range, using the most current and reliable data available, and be regularly reviewed and updated. Other physician resource planning considerations are set out in the CMA's comprehensive policy on PRPs.8 Clinical governance: Since the late 1990s there has been a great deal of attention paid to the concept of clinical governance, which may be defined as the structures, processes and culture needed to ensure that health care organizations and all individuals within them can assure the quality of the care they provide and are continuously seeking to improve it. During the past decade several provinces have carried out inquiries related to problems with pathology and radiology. In British Columbia (B.C.) the Chair of the BC Patient Safety & Quality Council conducted a review of the medical imaging credentialing and quality assurance that reported in 2011. In his final report, Dr. Douglas Cochrane set out 35 recommendations that called for much more rigorous and uniform oversight of medical practice in B.C.9 The recommendations included a call for: * the creation of a single medical staff administration to serve all health authorities and affiliated organizations; * the development of standardized processes for medical staff appointment, and credentialing and privileging, including common definitions; and * the development of performance assessment and review process for all physicians.9 The Cochrane report has resulted in the British Columbia Medical Quality Initiative (BC MQI). BC MQI is implementing an online Provincial Practitioner Credentialing and Privileging System (CACTUS Software) that will be used by all of B.C.'s RHAs to manage these processes for physicians, midwives, dentists and nurse practitioners.10 BC MQI has developed 62 privileging dictionaries for medical directors and department heads to use with their colleagues during initial and renewal privileging processes. The dictionaries recommend the required current experience to perform a certain activity in the form of numbers where applicable and also recommend the requirements for renewal of privileges and the requirements for return to practice. These recommendations are meant to take into account the individual's own experience and the context of the local site in which they work. They are meant to begin a conversation as needed with the department head, colleagues and others. The Society of Rural Physicians of Canada (SRPC) has raised concerns about the potential impact of volume-based credentialing on rural medical practice. For example, the dictionary for Family Practice with Enhanced Surgical Skills recommends that for operative delivery, a volume of at least five caesarean section deliveries be performed per year averaged over 24 months.11The SRPC has put forward recommendations that emphasize the need for appropriate peer review and consideration of geographic diversity and the range of medical practice, and that credential revalidation should be based on the actual quality of care provided by the physician, the continuing medical education completed by the physician and should also consider the impact of changes in delivery on the health outcomes in the community.12 It seems likely that other jurisdictions will be watching the CACTUS program with interest. Recommendation The CMA recommends that the application of standardized credential templates must take into consideration the quality of care being provided by the physician and local circumstances such as the complement of medical and hospital resources available locally and the timeliness of proximity to secondary and tertiary care. Advocacy: Advocacy has been identified as one of seven core roles of every physician by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada13 and the College of Family Physicians of Canada.14 This role entails physicians using their expertise and influence in the interests of their individual patients and the communities and populations they serve. Over the past decade there have been several instances where physicians have either expressed concern about their ability to advocate or have had disciplinary action taken against them, likely as a result of their advocacy activities. As a result of an inquiry carried out by the Health Quality Council of Alberta, the Alberta Medical Association, Alberta Health Services and the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta have adopted a joint policy statement that sets out guidelines for physician advocacy.15 Eastern Health in Newfoundland and Labrador has a privacy/confidentiality oath or affirmation for physicians that acknowledges that they may have professional standards for disclosure and advocacy regarding patient safety, but stipulates the expectation that such concerns be first addressed through Eastern Health as an initial step.16 The CMA's policy on the evolving professional relationship between physicians and the health care system sets out nine factors for physicians to consider before undertaking advocacy.17 As predominantly employees of some level of government, and with a responsibility to sound an alert on population health risks, public health physicians are at greater risk of being disciplined for advocacy. There have been two high profile cases of public health physicians who have been dismissed for advocacy-related activities since 2000. Thus far only B.C. has enacted public health legislation to protect medical officers of health from political interference and adverse employment consequences. B.C.'s Public Health Act stipulates that the provincial health officer (PHO) has a duty to advise on provincial public health issues, which includes public reporting where the PHO believes it will best serve the public interest. Similarly sub-provincial medical health officers must advise on local public health issues and publicly report on them after consultation with the PHO. B.C.'s legislation also provides health officers with immunity from legal proceedings for actions done in good faith in the performance of their duties and for reports they are required to make. In addition the legislation protects health officers from "adverse actions", defined as an action that would either affect or threaten "the personal, financial or other interests of a person, or a relative, dependent, friend or business or other close association of that person" as a result of performing their duties in good faith.18 Recommendations The CMA strongly supports the implementation of policy to safeguard physicians from fear of reprisal and retaliation when speaking out as advocates for their patients and communities, and the right and duty of medical officers of health to speak publicly to the citizens they serve. The CMA supports provincial/territorial amendments to public health legislation to protect the right and duty of medical officers of health to speak publicly to the citizens they serve without political interference or risk of adverse employment consequences. Growing employment/contractual relationships: The move to RHAs, consolidation in the hospital sector and changing delivery models have had significant implications for the relationships between physicians and hospitals. The Canadian Medical Protective Association (CMPA) has identified several areas of concern, including patient advocacy, reporting of physicians, responding to adverse events, collection and use of physician information, practice arrangements and liability provision.19 One issue that the CMPA has highlighted in particular is the increasing trend in some jurisdictions for physicians to be engaged on a contracted employee basis rather than as independent contractors appointed with privileges.20 This is seen among facility-based physicians such as hospitalists, clinical and surgical assistants and laboratory physicians. The CMPA has cautioned that physicians engaged on a contractual basis may not have the same procedural rights on termination of contracts as those engaged under the privileging model and it has issued guidance on issues to consider with individual contracts, including CMPA assistance, indemnification clauses, liability provisions, confidentiality, termination of contract, dispute resolution and governing law.21 Recommendation The CMA believes that medical staff bylaws should expressly extend to physicians under contract entitlement to the procedural protections set out in the hospital or health authority bylaws. Principles Physicians must take a leadership role and be active participants in the development of appointment, reappointment and related processes; medical communities must therefore be aware of the basic principles that should be reflected in these processes. Once a physician has obtained a licence to practice, the process of appointment approval is the next step in obtaining permission to practise medicine in a health care facility, district or region. The next step is the granting of privileges. This bestows the right to perform specific medical acts within the health care facility, district or region. The final step is the provision of the necessary resources so that the physician is able to provide appropriate medical services for patient care. A medical committee with a clear structure and mandate to deal with appointments, reappointments and privileges must be maintained in all health care facilities, districts and regions so that physician input may be given during the appointment, reappointment and related processes. Clinical peer review must be foundational to these processes. Time, training and resources must be sufficient to support consistent peer review processes. The principles proposed below apply to all of the following processes: the appointment and reappointment processes, the granting of privileges and the allocation of health care facility, district or regional resources. Principles for the processes of granting appointments, reappointments and privileges and allocating resources 1. All processes should be fair, equitable, documented and transparent and should protect confidentiality. They should be completed in a timely manner and follow the rules of natural justice. At a minimum, the rules of natural justice give the physician the right to notice and the right to be heard before, and provided with reasons by, an impartial adjudicator. Given the nature of the physician's interests in the appointment, reappointment and other related processes, the following principles should also be included: * the right to be heard, either in person and (or) by representation; * the right to full disclosure of the information being considered by the committee that makes recommendations on appointments, reappointments and privileges; * the right to present evidence; * the right to a hearing free from bias, either real or perceived; * the right to a record of the proceedings; * a decision within a reasonable period; * the right to receive written reasons for the decision; and * the right to an appeal process by an independent and impartial body other than the board of the health care facility, district or region. It is important that all processes, including any review processes, follow the principles of natural justice. These processes should be part of the medical staff bylaws that guide the operation of the health care facility, district or region and should be known to all appointed physicians. 2. Criteria for reappointment should be clearly specified in medical staff bylaws and should be no more onerous than necessary to verify the ongoing provision of quality care by the medical staff. Medical staff appointments are typically for a one-year term. Criteria for reappointment vary across Canada, ranging from the provision of evidence of renewed licensure and liability coverage with a discretionary in-depth performance evaluation to the foregoing plus a mandated in-depth performance evaluation and reporting on continuing professional development activity. 3. A regular evaluation of appointed physicians should be conducted by the appropriate clinical chief. It should consist of a fair, documented process with explicit, agreed-upon criteria for the review of the physician's qualifications and credentials and the quality of care provided. If there is demonstrated inappropriate behaviour or a quality-of-care issue, a program for remediation should be established with regular follow-up over a period deemed appropriate by the physician's peers. As in other jobs, the objective of regular performance evaluations for a physician is to improve the physician's performance and the focus should be on opportunities for learning and improvement. The appraisal should entail a standardized peer evaluation process, in addition to self-assessment. The self-assessment process should include the recognition of satisfactory existing skills and the identification of new skills to be learned. In some situations remediation may be justified, for example when there is a need to upgrade skills, when interpersonal and communication skills are unacceptable, and when there is alcohol or drug abuse. Physician evaluations conducted by RHAs should take into account requirements already asked of the physician by their certifying and/or licensing body or other speciality organization in order to avoid duplication of effort. Looking ahead, with the increasing focus on team-based collaborative care, performance of team function and its impact on overall performance to meet health service requirements and quality of care is expected to become increasingly relevant. Conflict resolution mechanisms, scopes of practice and shared roles and responsibilities will need to be considered in order to assess individual and team performance. 4. The quality of a physician's care is the most important criterion to be considered at the time of appointment, reappointment and the granting of privileges. Quality care may be defined as the provision of service that satisfies the needs of the patient and meets the standards set out by recognized bodies of the profession, such as licensing bodies, national clinical societies and others. The essential components of quality include competence, accessibility, acceptability, effectiveness, appropriateness, efficiency, affordability and safety. The cost of a physician's care should not be the primary criterion considered during appointment, reappointment and related processes. Practice patterns, resulting in differences in cost of care, will differ for numerous reasons, including severity of illness, patient mix and patient choices. If there is a local, regional or district physician resource plan, then the need for a particular physician skill base as identified in the plan is an important criterion for appointment or reappointment to institutions within the plan. Physicians must be involved in the development of such a plan, and the plan must be supported by physicians at the local, district or regional level. If a practice and remuneration plan is introduced for a facility, hospital or academic health sciences centre, then participation in such a plan should not be a criterion for reappointment. 5. The information required for the granting of appointments, reappointments or privileges or for the allocation of medical resources must be accurate, valid and appropriate. The information required for these purposes should generally be limited to that which is reasonably necessary to determine the physician's ability to provide safe care. Physician's privacy should only be violated if it is determined that a medical condition or other disability poses an unacceptable risk to patients. The physician's credentials, skills, expertise and quality of care, as judged by peer assessment, should be considered during the appointment or reappointment process. Utilization data and associated indicators are being used more frequently as criteria for appointment and reappointment. Therefore, physicians must be involved in the development of such indicators, and there must be agreement by all parties on the type and quality of data or indicators to be used. In addition, before appointment or reappointment, physicians must be made aware of the data or indicators that will be used to evaluate them and the criteria by which these indicators will be applied. 6. The processes of granting appointments, reappointments and privileges and allocating resources should recognize and accommodate the changes in practice patterns that may occur over the medical career cycle. These processes should be flexible and reasonable concerning other issues such as on-call responsibilities or time needed to fulfil research and teaching commitments. It is important to recognize that a physician's practice pattern may change during his or her medical career. These changes may reflect the desire to no longer take call, the narrowing of the physician's practice to achieve a higher level of expertise in a specific area or the desire to pursue academic interests or responsibilities. Pregnancy, parental leave and the wish to practice part-time must also be considered. The quality of a physician's personal life and other special needs should be viewed as important and should be considered by those making decisions in these areas. 7. Physicians with established community practices have a significant investment in their practice and the community; this investment should be considered at the time of reappointment or change in privileges. An established physician may face financial loss if he or she is not reappointed or if there is a recommendation to substantially change his or her privileges. This possibility should be considered at the time of reappointment or change in privileges. 8. A recommendation, without just cause, to withdraw an appointment, to restrict privileges or to significantly reduce resources available to a physician must include appropriate compensation based on individual circumstances. Appropriate compensation includes financial restitution, retraining, relocation assistance and counselling assistance as required. Sufficient notice and other elements of due process should also be components of this recommendation. Generally, physicians are not employees of a health care facility, district or regional authority. Nonetheless, there are often extensive restrictions on physician mobility and limited opportunities to practice both inside and outside a province or territory. Age may also be a factor in the ability to find placement elsewhere, particularly if the physician is nearing retirement age. For these reasons, an interruption or cessation of a physician's career caused by withdrawal of an appointment, restriction of privileges or reduction in the resources available to the physician justifies appropriate compensation and due notice; this is in keeping with good human resource practices. Appropriate notice should be provided to physicians so that there is minimal impact on patient care. What constitutes timely and appropriate notice may in some cases be several months and will differ depending on the impact of the decision. Examples of decisions that could have a significant impact on physicians include: * temporary or permanent closure of operating rooms or other facilities; * strategic redirection of the hospital that may adversely affect a particular medical service or department, such as regionalization of laboratory testing or provincial centralization of a specialized service; and * implementation of a retirement policy. 9. The reporting of legal actions or disciplinary actions as part of the reappointment or reappointment process should be restricted to those matters in which a final determination has been rendered and in which there has been an adverse finding to the physician. References 1 Accreditation Canada. Qmentum Standards. Governance. Ottawa: Accreditation Canada; 2016. 2 Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Healthcare. Review by peers: a guide for professional, clinical and administrative processes. Sydney: Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care; July 2010. Available: http://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/37358-Review-by-Peers.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 3 New Brunswick Department of Health. Registration requirements. Fredericton: New Brunswick Department of Health; 2016. Available: http://www.gnb.ca/0394/prw/RegistrationRequirements-e.asp (accessed 2016 May 02). 4 Nova Scotia Department of Health and Wellness. Shaping our Physician Workforce. Updates. Halifax: Nova Scotia Department of Health and Wellness; 2016. Available: http://novascotia.ca/dhw/shapingPhysicianWorkforce/updates.asp (accessed 2016 May 02). 5 Province of Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Health Authority Medical Staff Bylaws. Halifax: Province of Nova Scotia; April 2015. Available: https://www.novascotia.ca/just/regulations/regs/hamedstaff.htm (accessed 2016 May 02). 6 Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. WRHA Board By-Law No.3 Medical Staff. Winnipeg: Winnipeg Regional Health Authority; March 2014. Available: http://www.wrha.mb.ca/extranet/medicalstaff/files/MedByLaw.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 7 Bill 41. An Act to amend various Acts in the interests of patient-centred care. 2nd Sess, 41st Leg, Ontario; 2016. Available: http://www.ontla.on.ca/bills/bills-files/41_Parliament/Session2/b041.pdf (accessed 2016 Nov 07). 8 Canadian Medical Association. Physician resource planning. Updated 2015. Ottawa: The Association; 2015. Available: http://policybase.cma.ca/dbtw-wpd/Policypdf/PD15-07.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 9 Cochrane DD. Investigation into medical imaging, credentialing and quality assurance. Phase 2 report. Vancouver: BC Patient Safety & Quality Council; Aug 2011. Available: http://www.health.gov.bc.ca/library/publications/year/2011/cochrane-phase2-report.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 10 British Columbia Medical Quality Initiative. Briefing note: BC MQI - Provincial Practitioner Credentialing and Privileging System (CACTUS Software) Implementation. Vancouver: British Columbia Medical Quality Initiative; January 2016. Available: http://bcmqi.ca/wp-content/uploads/Briefing-Note_ProvincialPractitionerCPSystemImplementation.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 11 British Columbia Medical Quality Initiative. Family Practice with Enhanced Surgical Skills Clinical Privileges. Vancouver: British Columbia Medical Quality Initiative; March 2015. Available: http://www.srpc.ca/ess2016/summit/FamilyPracticeEnhancedSurgicalSkills.pdf (accessed 2016 Nov 06). 12 Soles H, Larsen Soles T. SRPC position statement on minimum-volume credentialing. Can J Rural Med. 2016;21(4):107-11. 13 Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. CanMEDS 2015. Physician competency framework. Ottawa: Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada; 2015. Available: http://canmeds.royalcollege.ca/uploads/en/framework/CanMEDS%202015%20Framework_EN_Reduced.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 14 College of Family Physicians of Canada. CanMEDS-Family Medicine. Working Group on Curriculum Review. Mississauga: College of Family Physicians of Canada; October 2009. Available: http://www.cfpc.ca/uploadedFiles/Education/CanMeds%20FM%20Eng.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 15 Alberta Medical Association, Alberta Health Services, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta. Advocacy Policy Statement. Edmonton: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. Available: https://www.albertadoctors.org/Advocacy/Policy_Statement.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 16 Eastern Health. Privacy and confidentiality. ADM-030. St. John's, NL: Eastern Health; 2015. Available: http://www.easternhealth.ca/OurServices.aspx?d=2&id=743&p=740 (accessed 2016 Jun 23). 17 Canadian Medical Association. The evolving professional relationship between Canadian physicians and our evolving health care system: where do we stand? Ottawa: The Association; 2012. Available: https://www.cma.ca/Assets/assets-library/document/en/advocacy/policy-research/CMA_Policy_The_evolving_professional_relationship_between_Canadian_physicians_and_our_health_care_system_PD12-04-e.pdf (accessed 2016 May 02). 18 Public Health Act. SBC 2008, Chapter 28. Available: http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/08028_01 (accessed 2016 Nov 07). 19 Canadian Medical Protective Association. Changing physician-hospital relationships: Managing the medico-legal implications of change. Ottawa: The Association; 2011. Available: https://www.cmpa-acpm.ca/-/changing-physician-hospital-relationships (accessed 2016 Nov 07). 20 Canadian Medical Protective Association. The changing practice of medicine: employment contracts and medical liability. Ottawa: The Association; 2012. Available: https://www.cmpa-acpm.ca/-/the-changing-practice-of-medicine-employment-contracts-and-medical-liability (accessed 2016 Nov 07). 21 Canadian Medical Protective Association. Medical-legal issues to consider with individual contracts. Ottawa: The Association; 2016. Available: https://www.cmpa-acpm.ca/-/medico-legal-issues-to-consider-with-individual-contracts (accessed 2016 Nov 07).

Less detail